Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period in English Literature — Part 1
Introduction to the Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period
The Anglo-Saxon or the Old English Period
The Anglo-Saxon period in English literature, also known as the Old English period, spans from approximately 450 AD to 1066 AD. During this time, the Anglo-Saxons, who were Germanic tribes from present-day Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands, settled in England after the fall of the Roman Empire. They brought with them their language and cultural traditions, which greatly influenced the early development of English literature.
Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Literature:
Oral Tradition: Most literature of this period was passed down orally through generations by scops (poet-singers) who memorized and recited poems and stories at gatherings and feasts.
Heroic Poetry: The most famous literary works of the time were heroic poems, such as “Beowulf,” which celebrated the deeds of legendary heroes and warriors.
Alliteration: Anglo-Saxon poetry heavily relied on alliteration, where the initial consonant sounds of stressed syllables were repeated in adjacent words.
Kennings: A kenning is a poetic device used to create metaphorical expressions by combining two or more words. For example, “whale-road” for the sea and “battle-sweat” for blood.
Pagan and Christian Elements: Early Anglo-Saxon literature often contained elements of pagan mythology and Germanic folklore. After the conversion to Christianity in the 7th and 8th centuries, Christian themes and references were also integrated into the literature.
Comitatus: A Germanic concept of loyalty and allegiance between a lord and his warriors, which often served as a central theme in heroic poetry.
Important Literary Works:
“Beowulf”: This epic poem, composed in Old English, tells the tale of the hero Beowulf and his battles against the monster Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a dragon. It highlights themes of heroism, fate, and the passing of traditions from one generation to the next.
“The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer”: These elegiac poems explore themes of exile, loss, and the impermanence of earthly life.
“The Dream of the Rood”: An early Christian poem where the Cross itself speaks about the Crucifixion of Christ.
“The Battle of Maldon”: A historical poem that commemorates a battle between Anglo-Saxon warriors and Viking invaders.
“Caedmon’s Hymn”: Often considered the earliest surviving Old English poem, it is a short hymn praising the creation of the world.
The Old English Language
The Old English language was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxon people who lived in England from around the mid-5th century to the mid-12th century. It is the earliest recorded form of the English language and is the direct predecessor of Middle English.
Features of Old English:
Germanic Roots: Old English is a West Germanic language and shares its roots with other Germanic languages like Old High German and Old Norse. The Anglo-Saxons, who migrated to England from modern-day Germany and Scandinavia, brought their language with them.
Runes and Futhorc: In the early stages, Old English was written using runes, a runic alphabet called the “Futhorc.” Over time, the Latin alphabet replaced runes as the primary writing system for Old English.
Inflectional Language: Old English was a highly inflectional language, meaning that it used inflections (suffixes and endings) to indicate grammatical relationships between words. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs all had different forms to indicate case, gender, number, and tense.
Four Dialects: Old English had four major dialects:
West Saxon,
Mercian,
Northumbrian,
and Kentish.
The West Saxon dialect, used in the kingdom of Wessex, became the dominant and literary form of Old English.
Vocabulary: Old English had a much smaller vocabulary compared to modern English, with many of the words derived from Germanic roots. However, it also borrowed words from Latin, Old Norse, and Celtic languages due to interactions with other cultures.
Beowulf: One of the most famous and significant surviving texts from the Old English period is the epic poem “Beowulf.” It is an example of the heroic and narrative poetry that characterized this period.
Christianity and Latin Influence: With the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, Latin had a profound influence on Old English. Many religious and theological terms were borrowed from Latin.
Decline and Transition: The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the decline of Old English. The Normans brought their own language, Old French, and their culture, which resulted in a significant influence on the English language. This marked the transition from Old English to Middle English.
Overall, Old English played a crucial role in the development of the English language, laying the foundation for the subsequent stages of Middle English and Early Modern English. While it is not commonly spoken or understood today, its legacy is evident in the core vocabulary and grammatical structures of modern English.
Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period
During the Anglo-Norman period (1066-1154), which followed the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, chronicles were important literary works that played a significant role in recording historical events, political developments, and the cultural life of the time. These chronicles were typically written in Latin or Anglo-Norman French, reflecting the linguistic influence of the Norman rulers.
Key Characteristics of Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period:
Latin and Anglo-Norman French: The official language of the Anglo-Norman court was Latin, and it continued to be used for official documents and historical records. However, Anglo-Norman French, a variety of Old French, was the dominant language used for literary works, including chronicles. The transition from Latin to Anglo-Norman French marked a shift in the language of literature and administration.
Historical Narratives: Chronicles of this period were primarily historical narratives, written by clerics, monks, or scribes who had access to historical records, annals, and earlier chronicles. These authors aimed to document the history of England, the Norman Conquest, and the subsequent reigns of Norman kings, such as William the Conqueror, William Rufus, and Henry I.
Royal Patronage: Many chronicles were commissioned and supported by Norman kings and aristocrats to establish their legitimacy and promote their political agendas. These chronicles often portrayed the rulers in a positive light and highlighted their achievements.
The Domesday Book: One of the most notable chronicles from the Anglo-Norman period is the Domesday Book, a comprehensive survey of England completed in 1086 by order of William the Conqueror. The Domesday Book recorded detailed information on landholdings, property ownership, and taxation.
Monastic Chronicles: Monasteries were centers of learning and preservation of historical records during this period. Monastic chronicles, written by monks, provided valuable insights into political events, religious matters, and social life.
Latin Chronicles: While Anglo-Norman French was the dominant language for literary works, Latin continued to be used for some historical writings. Latin chronicles often covered broader historical events and had a wider readership outside of England.
Historical Accuracy: Chronicles of the Anglo-Norman period aimed to present accurate accounts of events, but they were also influenced by biases and the perspectives of the authors. As a result, some chronicles may include embellishments or interpretations.
Influence on Later Literature: Chronicles from the Anglo-Norman period had a lasting impact on later English literature. The accounts of the Norman Conquest and the deeds of the Anglo-Norman kings were later incorporated into historical romances and chivalric literature.
Overall, chronicles in the Anglo-Norman period served as important historical documents that recorded the events of the time and provided valuable insights into the political and cultural landscape of medieval England. They contributed to the development of historical writing and played a crucial role in preserving the memory of significant events for future generations.
“Beowulf”
“Beowulf” is an epic poem from the Old English period, composed in the early Middle Ages. It is considered one of the most important works in English literature and is often regarded as the earliest surviving epic poem in the English language. The author of “Beowulf” is unknown, and the poem was likely composed and passed down through oral tradition before being written down by a scribe in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex.
Story Summary:
The poem is set in the legendary land of the Geats and Danes during the early 6th century. It revolves around the heroic exploits of the protagonist, Beowulf, a Geatish warrior who comes to the aid of King Hrothgar of the Danes. Hrothgar’s great mead-hall, Heorot, has been under attack by the monstrous creature Grendel.
Upon hearing of the Danes’ plight, Beowulf sails with his men to Denmark to confront Grendel. He presents himself before King Hrothgar and bravely declares his intention to rid Heorot of the evil Grendel. That night, Beowulf and his warriors sleep in the mead-hall, and when Grendel attacks, Beowulf engages the monster in a fierce hand-to-hand combat. With his incredible strength, Beowulf defeats Grendel, tearing off his arm, and the wounded monster retreats to his lair.
However, the story does not end there. Grendel’s mother, a powerful and vengeful creature, seeks to avenge her son’s death. She attacks Heorot, and Beowulf, undeterred, goes after her. He dives into her underwater lair and battles her with the aid of a magical sword he finds there. After a harrowing struggle, Beowulf emerges victorious, having slain Grendel’s mother.
Following these heroic feats, Beowulf returns to his homeland, Geatland, where he is hailed as a hero and later becomes king. He rules his kingdom wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity and peace to his people. However, a new threat emerges in the form of a mighty dragon that guards a hoard of treasure. Beowulf, now an elderly king, faces this final challenge, and despite his old age, he courageously confronts the dragon in an epic battle. During the battle, Beowulf’s loyal follower, Wiglaf, comes to his aid, and together, they manage to kill the dragon. Tragically, Beowulf succumbs to his wounds and dies.
Critical Summary:
“Beowulf” is a masterpiece of Old English literature, and its significance lies in its portrayal of heroic ideals, the struggles between good and evil, and the themes of loyalty, honor, and fate. The poem offers insights into the warrior culture of the Anglo-Saxons and their beliefs about heroism and the afterlife.
The character of Beowulf embodies the ideal warrior of the time, characterized by his physical strength, bravery, and unwavering loyalty to his king and people. The battles against Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon showcase the valor and prowess of the heroic figure.
The poem also reflects the blending of pagan and Christian elements. While the setting and some characters are rooted in pagan mythology, there are Christian references and themes throughout the work. The portrayal of the afterlife and the idea of fate as a guiding force exemplify this fusion of beliefs.
“Beowulf” also serves as an important historical document, shedding light on early medieval society, including aspects of warrior culture, kingship, and the use of mead-halls as centers of community and celebration.
Overall, “Beowulf” remains a timeless work that continues to inspire and captivate readers with its epic storytelling, heroic characters, and exploration of timeless themes.
The authors of both “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” are unknown. Like many works from the Old English period, these poems were passed down orally for generations before being written down. As a result, the original composers of these poems remain anonymous.
Both “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” are found in the same manuscript known as the Exeter Book, a collection of Old English poetry. The Exeter Book dates back to the 10th century and is one of the few surviving sources of Old English poetry. These poems are significant examples of elegiac poetry from the Old English period, characterized by their themes of exile, loneliness, and the transient nature of human existence.
While we don’t know the specific authors of these poems, their impact and enduring themes have made them important contributions to the literary and cultural heritage of the English language.
“The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” are two Old English poems that are often studied together due to their thematic similarities and their exploration of the same theme of exile, loneliness, and the impermanence of human life. These poems are significant examples of elegiac poetry from the Old English period, characterized by their melancholic and reflective tone.
“The Wanderer”:
“The Wanderer” is an Old English poem that reflects the feelings of sorrow and loss experienced by an individual who has been exiled from his homeland and is now wandering alone in a desolate and harsh landscape.
The poem is written in first person, with the speaker lamenting the impermanence of human existence, the passing of time, and the fleeting nature of human achievements.
The speaker reflects on the transitory nature of earthly joys and the inevitability of fate, noting that all things must come to an end.
The poem also emphasizes the importance of loyalty, friendship, and the bond between lord and retainer. The speaker mourns the loss of his lord, who has either died or been separated from him due to the hardships of life.
Throughout the poem, the speaker seeks solace and wisdom in God’s eternal realm, acknowledging that true stability can only be found in spiritual values.
“The Seafarer”:
“The Seafarer” is another Old English poem that explores themes of exile and the hardships faced by a lone sailor as he navigates the treacherous sea.
The poem is divided into two parts. In the first part, the speaker describes the physical challenges and dangers of a life at sea, highlighting the harsh conditions, the cold, and the isolation.
In the second part, the speaker reflects on the impermanence of worldly pleasures and the value of seeking salvation and eternal reward through a life of piety and faith.
Like “The Wanderer,” “The Seafarer” conveys a sense of melancholy and existential reflection, meditating on the fleeting nature of human life and the yearning for stability and spiritual fulfillment.
The poem is both a lament for the challenges of a seafaring life and a contemplation on the ultimate significance of life’s trials in the context of the divine.
Both “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” capture the mood of loss, longing, and introspection that characterized much of Old English elegiac poetry. They provide insights into the emotional and spiritual experiences of individuals during a time of great upheaval and uncertainty, while also highlighting the enduring themes of human existence that transcend historical periods.
“The Dream of the Rood” is an Old English poem that presents a dream vision narrated by an unknown speaker. The poem is remarkable for its unique blend of Christian and heroic elements, and it focuses on the crucifixion of Jesus Christ from the perspective of the cross (the “rood” in Old English).
Themes and Elements of “The Dream of the Rood”:
Crucifixion from the Cross’s Perspective: The poem begins with the speaker recounting a dream in which he sees the cross upon which Jesus was crucified as a living and sentient being. The cross itself speaks and describes the events of the crucifixion from its own point of view.
Blending of Christian and Heroic Themes: “The Dream of the Rood” merges Christian teachings with elements of Germanic heroic poetry. The cross is depicted as a brave and noble warrior, standing firm in the face of suffering and death. This fusion of Christian and heroic themes is unique to the poem.
Personification of the Cross: In the dream, the cross narrates its experience of being taken from the forest and transformed into an instrument of salvation. It speaks of its role in the crucifixion, describing how it was adorned with precious metals and gems, transforming it into a symbol of glory rather than shame.
Emphasis on Christ’s Sacrifice: The poem emphasizes Christ’s voluntary sacrifice for humanity’s salvation. The cross, personified as a loyal companion of Christ, willingly bears the burden of the crucifixion and describes how it felt honored to be used in such a sacred mission.
Elevation of the Cross: The cross speaks of its transformation into a symbol of victory and salvation, contrasting its initial humiliation with the glory it gained through its association with Christ’s sacrifice and resurrection.
Call to Embrace the Cross: Toward the end of the poem, the cross invites the dreamer to embrace and kiss it, encouraging the reader to hold Christ’s sacrifice in reverence.
Role of Oral Tradition: Like many Old English poems, “The Dream of the Rood” is believed to have been passed down through oral tradition before being written down. Its poetic language and structure reflect the oral nature of storytelling during the time.
Religious and Didactic Purpose: The poem’s primary purpose is to convey religious and moral teachings to its audience. It serves as a meditation on the significance of Christ’s sacrifice and encourages readers to contemplate the transformative power of the cross.
“The Dream of the Rood” is a unique and powerful example of Old English religious poetry. Its blending of Christian theology with heroic imagery provides a distinctive perspective on the crucifixion narrative and invites readers to engage with the profound themes of suffering, sacrifice, and salvation.
The author of “The Dream of the Rood” is unknown. Like many Old English poems, the identity of the poet who composed “The Dream of the Rood” has been lost to history. The poem was likely passed down through the oral tradition of storytelling before being written down in manuscripts.
“The Dream of the Rood” is found in the Exeter Book, a manuscript collection of Old English poetry dating back to the 10th century. The Exeter Book contains a variety of religious and secular poems, and “The Dream of the Rood” is one of the religious poems in the collection.
While the author’s identity remains a mystery, the impact and significance of “The Dream of the Rood” in Old English literature and its blending of Christian and heroic themes have solidified its place as an important work in the literary and cultural heritage of the English language.
“The Battle of Maldon” is an Old English poem that recounts the historical Battle of Maldon, which took place in 991 AD between Anglo-Saxon warriors led by Ealdorman Byrhtnoth and Viking invaders. The poem is notable for its depiction of the heroic values of the Anglo-Saxons and their commitment to defending their homeland against foreign invaders.
Historical Context: The Battle of Maldon was a real historical event that occurred during a period of frequent Viking raids on England. The battle took place near the town of Maldon in Essex, England, and pitted Anglo-Saxon forces against a Viking raiding party.
Heroic Values: The poem is a celebration of Anglo-Saxon heroic values, such as loyalty to one’s lord, bravery in battle, and the willingness to face death rather than retreat. These values were deeply ingrained in Anglo-Saxon society and are reflected in the actions and speeches of the characters in the poem.
Ealdorman Byrhtnoth: Ealdorman Byrhtnoth is the central figure in the poem and the leader of the Anglo-Saxon warriors. He is portrayed as a courageous and honorable leader who stands firm against the Viking invaders. His dedication to defending his land and his willingness to face the enemy head-on make him a heroic figure.
Dialogue and Speeches: The poem includes vivid dialogue and speeches that reveal the characters’ motivations, beliefs, and emotions. Byrhtnoth’s speeches, in particular, emphasize his determination to protect his people and his willingness to fight to the death.
Elegiac Tone: “The Battle of Maldon” adopts an elegiac tone, lamenting the loss of brave warriors and the defeat of the Anglo-Saxon forces. The poem captures a sense of mourning for the fallen while also celebrating their valor.
Unfinished Nature: The poem is incomplete, and it is believed that a portion of the manuscript containing the ending has been lost. Despite its incomplete state, the poem remains a valuable historical and literary source.
Authorship:
The author of “The Battle of Maldon” is unknown, and the poem’s origins can be traced back to the late 10th or early 11th century. Like many works from the Old English period, it was likely passed down through oral tradition before
being written down. The author’s anonymity does not diminish the poem’s significance as a reflection of Anglo-Saxon culture, values, and historical events.
“The Battle of Maldon” serves as a testament to the courage and resilience of the Anglo-Saxon warriors in the face of Viking incursions. It offers a glimpse into the challenges and conflicts of the time and is a valuable source for understanding the historical and cultural context of early medieval England.
The Enduring Voice of the Anglo-Saxon Imagination
As we conclude this first part of our exploration into the Old English period, one truth stands clear: the Anglo-Saxon poets and chroniclers shaped not only the language of English literature, but its spirit. In the rugged lines of Beowulf, in the meditative laments of The Wanderer and The Seafarer, in the visionary beauty of Dream of the Rood, and in the valiant echoes of The Battle of Maldon, we encounter a literature steeped in resilience, faith, and a profound awareness of life’s fleeting nature.
This was a world where heroes faced dragons and exile with stoic resolve, where the sea was both a pathway and a prison, where the cross itself spoke in divine vision. The Anglo-Saxon imagination wove a tapestry of glory and grief that still resonates across the centuries.
Here, at The Professor’s Desk, we pause to reflect on this enduring literary legacy — not merely as scholars cataloguing ancient texts, but as readers listening for the timeless human voice beneath the layers of history and language. The Old English period invites us to read with empathy, to understand with depth, and to honour the artistry of a world long past.
In Part 2, we will turn to the equally rich contributions of religious poetry, historical narrative, and royal patronage — meeting Cædmon, Cynewulf, Bede, and King Alfred the Great. The story of the Old English period is far from over; its wisdom continues to unfold.
Old poems may fade on parchment, but their truths echo within us — across oceans of time, in every mindful reader who dares to listen.
Signed,
ABS, The Literary Professor
The Professor’s Desk