Literary Criticism, UGC NET /JRF UNIT VIII

Literary criticism is the analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of literary works, such as novels, poems, plays, and essays. It involves examining the various elements and aspects of a text, including its themes, characters, plot, writing style, historical and cultural context, and symbolism. Literary critics aim to understand and appreciate the artistic and intellectual qualities of a work while also providing insights into its meaning and significance.

Critics may employ different approaches and theories, such as formalism, structuralism, psychoanalysis, feminism, or postcolonialism, to examine literature from various perspectives. The goal of literary criticism is to deepen our understanding of literature, explore its complexities, and contribute to the ongoing conversation about the value and meaning of literary works. It plays a crucial role in shaping literary discourse and can influence how we perceive and interpret literature.

Literary criticism is a comprehensive and multifaceted endeavor that involves the systematic examination, assessment, and interpretation of literary works in various forms, including novels, poetry, plays, essays, and more. It is a vital field within the realm of literary studies that seeks to delve deeply into the intricacies and nuances of these works, exploring their meanings, structures, and cultural significance.

At its core, literary criticism strives to unravel the layers of complexity inherent in literature. Critics meticulously analyze and dissect texts, scrutinizing elements such as plot, character development, setting, tone, and narrative style. They investigate how these elements interact and contribute to the overall meaning and impact of a literary work.

Beyond the surface-level analysis, literary criticism also delves into the thematic, philosophical, and symbolic aspects of a piece of literature. It seeks to uncover the underlying ideas and messages that authors convey through their writing. This can involve examining the historical and cultural context in which a work was created, as well as identifying allegorical or metaphorical elements that may be present.

What sets literary criticism apart is its embrace of various theoretical frameworks and methodologies. Critics may employ a range of approaches, including formalism, structuralism, psychoanalysis, feminist theory, postcolonial theory, and more, depending on their objectives and the nature of the text under scrutiny. These theoretical lenses provide different perspectives and tools for understanding literature, often revealing new dimensions and insights.

Furthermore, literary criticism is not a static or one-dimensional practice; it evolves over time. Critics engage in ongoing dialogues with the works they study and with one another. They contribute to the development of critical theories, challenge established interpretations, and shape the trajectory of literary discourse.

Literary criticism enriches our appreciation and comprehension of literature. It serves as a lens through which we can explore the profound beauty, intellectual depth, and cultural relevance of literary works. By engaging with these texts in a critical manner, we gain a deeper understanding of the human condition, societal issues, and the enduring power of storytelling.

The origin and development of literary criticism can be traced back to ancient civilizations, and it has evolved significantly over the centuries. Here is a brief overview of its historical progression:

Ancient Greece and Rome (5th century BCE to 5th century CE): The roots of literary criticism can be found in the works of ancient Greek philosophers and scholars like Plato and Aristotle. Plato’s dialogues, such as “Ion” and “Republic,” explored the role of poetry and literature in society, while Aristotle’s “Poetics” provided one of the earliest systematic frameworks for analyzing drama and poetry. These early writings laid the foundation for later critical thought.

Medieval and Renaissance Europe (5th century CE to 17th century CE): During the Middle Ages, literary criticism was often intertwined with religious and moral concerns. Literary works were evaluated based on their adherence to Christian values. In the Renaissance period, scholars like Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Sir Philip Sidney began to develop more secular and humanistic approaches to literary analysis.

The Enlightenment (17th to 18th centuries): The Enlightenment era saw the emergence of more systematic and rational approaches to literary criticism. Thinkers like John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, and Alexander Pope emphasized the importance of reason and clarity in literature. They also laid the groundwork for discussions on the aesthetics of literature.

Romanticism and 19th Century: The Romantic movement, which began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, challenged the rationalist and classical views of the Enlightenment. Romantic critics like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge emphasized the emotional and imaginative aspects of literature. The 19th century also saw the rise of literary theory, with figures like Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud incorporating sociopolitical and psychological perspectives into literary analysis.

20th Century and Beyond: The 20th century witnessed a proliferation of critical theories and approaches, including formalism, structuralism, psychoanalysis, feminism, postcolonialism, and more. Critics such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, and Michel Foucault introduced new paradigms for understanding literature. Postmodernism challenged traditional notions of authorship and literary meaning, emphasizing the instability of language.

Digital Age and Contemporary Criticism: In the digital age, literary criticism has adapted to new forms of media and storytelling, including digital literature, hypertext, and interactive narratives. The field continues to evolve with the advent of digital humanities, which incorporates computational methods and technology into literary analysis.

Throughout its history, literary criticism has expanded its horizons, embracing diverse cultural perspectives and interdisciplinary approaches. It continues to be a dynamic field, evolving alongside changes in literature, society, and technology, and offering fresh insights into the interpretation and appreciation of literary works.

Ancient Greece and Rome (5th century BCE to 5th century CE):

The period of ancient Greece and Rome played a foundational role in the development of literary criticism.

 Here’s a bit more detail about the contributions of Plato and Aristotle during this time:

Plato (c. 427-347 BCE): Plato’s dialogues, including “Ion” and “Republic,” featured discussions about the nature and purpose of poetry and literature. In “Ion,” he raises questions about the inspiration and expertise of poets, particularly in the context of rhapsodes who recited epic poetry. In “Republic,” Plato famously criticized poetry for its potential to corrupt the soul and advocated for censorship of certain types of literature in his ideal society. His works laid the groundwork for examining the ethical and societal implications of literature.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Aristotle’s “Poetics” is a seminal work in the history of literary criticism. In this treatise, he formulated a systematic framework for analyzing drama and poetry. Aristotle discussed the key elements of a successful dramatic work, including plot, character, theme, and spectacle. He introduced concepts like catharsis, which refers to the emotional purification or purging that occurs in the audience through the experience of tragedy. Aristotle’s ideas provided a structured basis for understanding and evaluating the artistic and emotional aspects of literature and theater.

The writings of Plato and Aristotle marked a significant shift from earlier approaches to literature, as they sought to provide rational and philosophical explanations for the role of literature in society and its emotional and intellectual impact on individuals. Their ideas not only influenced subsequent Greek and Roman thinkers but also had a lasting impact on the development of literary criticism in the Western tradition for centuries to come.

Plato (c. 427-347 BCE):

Plato (c. 427-347 BCE) was a renowned ancient Greek philosopher and one of the most influential figures in the history of Western philosophy. His life and work had a profound impact on various fields, including philosophy, politics, ethics, and literary criticism. Here are some key aspects of Plato’s life and contributions:

Life and Background: Plato was born in Athens, Greece, into an aristocratic family. He was a student of the philosopher Socrates and became deeply influenced by his teacher’s method of inquiry and dialectical reasoning. After Socrates’ execution, Plato traveled extensively, gaining exposure to various philosophical and intellectual traditions.
Philosophical Writings: Plato is primarily known for his extensive writings in the form of dialogues. These dialogues feature philosophical discussions between Socrates and other characters, exploring a wide range of topics, from ethics and politics to epistemology and metaphysics.
Theory of Forms (Ideas): One of Plato’s most significant philosophical contributions is his theory of Forms or Ideas. He believed that the physical world is an imperfect reflection of a higher, transcendent realm of abstract and eternal Forms. For example, the physical chair is merely a flawed copy of the perfect, timeless Form of a chair. This theory had implications for his views on reality and knowledge.

Literary Criticism: Plato’s dialogues, particularly “Ion” and “Republic,” contain discussions on the role of poetry and literature in society. In “Ion,” he questions the nature of poetic inspiration and the expertise of poets. In “Republic,” he famously critiques poetry and advocates for the censorship of certain types of literature in his ideal society. Plato believed that literature had the power to influence individuals and should be used to promote moral and ethical values.

Philosophy of Education: Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest known institutions of higher learning in the Western world. His philosophy of education emphasized the importance of cultivating both intellectual and moral virtues in individuals. He believed that education should be guided by the pursuit of truth and the development of an individual’s rational faculties.

Political Philosophy: Plato’s political philosophy is outlined in works like “The Republic” and “The Laws.” In “The Republic,” he outlines his vision of an ideal state led by philosopher-kings, where justice, wisdom, and the common good are paramount. His ideas on governance, justice, and the nature of the ideal society continue to be influential in political thought.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE):

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy and one of the most influential thinkers in the history of Western thought. His contributions span a wide range of disciplines, including philosophy, ethics, politics, natural science, and literary criticism. 

Life and Background: Aristotle was born in Stagira, a Greek city in what is now modern-day Macedonia. He came to Athens at the age of 17 to study under Plato at Plato’s Academy. Aristotle spent approximately 20 years as a student and later a teacher at the Academy before embarking on his own philosophical journey.

Philosophical Writings: Aristotle’s works cover an extensive array of subjects. His writings are primarily in the form of treatises, and they are known for their systematic and organized approach to philosophy. Some of his most famous works include “Nicomachean Ethics,” “Politics,” “Metaphysics,” “Poetics,” and “Physics.”

Empirical Approach: Aristotle is often referred to as the father of empirical science. He believed in the importance of observation and the collection of empirical data as a basis for understanding the natural world. This empirical approach laid the foundation for the development of modern scientific inquiry.

Ethics and Virtue: Aristotle’s ethical philosophy, as presented in “Nicomachean Ethics,” centers around the idea of achieving eudaimonia, often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing.” He argued that the highest human good is the cultivation of virtue and the exercise of reason in moral decision-making.

Politics: In “Politics,” Aristotle explored the nature of government, the best forms of government, and the idea of the “polis” or city-state. He advocated for a balanced and moderate form of government, emphasizing the importance of the middle class and the rule of law.

Metaphysics: Aristotle’s “Metaphysics” delves into questions of existence, being, and reality. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system that explored the nature of causation, substance, and change.

Poetics: Aristotle’s “Poetics” is a foundational work in literary criticism. In this treatise, he provides one of the earliest systematic frameworks for analyzing drama and poetry. Aristotle discusses elements such as plot, character, theme, and spectacle, offering insights into the structure and aesthetics of dramatic and poetic works. He also introduces the concept of “catharsis,” which refers to the emotional purification or purging that occurs in the audience through the experience of tragedy.

Aristotle’s influence extended far beyond his lifetime. His works were preserved and studied throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and they continue to be fundamental texts in various fields of study. His contributions to philosophy, science, ethics, politics, and literary criticism remain central to Western intellectual traditions.

Poetics The scientific study of Poetry

Aristotle’s “Poetics” can indeed be seen as a pioneering work in what could be considered the scientific study of poetry and drama. While the term “scientific” may not be used in the modern sense, Aristotle approached the analysis of poetry and drama in a systematic and analytical manner, which laid the groundwork for later developments in literary criticism and the study of literature.

Aristotle’s approach in “Poetics” was systematic and aimed at understanding the elements that make for effective and impactful literary works, particularly in the context of Greek tragedy and epic poetry. While the term “scientific” may not encompass all aspects of literary criticism as we understand it today, his work can be seen as an early attempt to provide a structured and analytical framework for the study and evaluation of literature, including poetry and drama. It laid a foundation for subsequent discussions on aesthetics, narrative structure, and the emotional impact of literature.

Aristotle identified these components as key elements that contribute to the effectiveness and quality of a tragic drama. 

Plot (Mythos): Aristotle considered the plot to be the most crucial element of a tragedy. He emphasized that a well-structured plot should have unity and coherence. This means that the events in the plot should be connected and lead to a logical and emotionally satisfying conclusion. Aristotle also stressed the importance of a plot’s beginning, middle, and end.

Character (Ethos): Characters in a tragedy play a significant role in engaging the audience emotionally. Aristotle believed that characters should be consistent and true to their nature throughout the play. He introduced the concept of “hamartia,” which is often translated as a “tragic flaw.” This flaw in the main character contributes to their downfall.

Thought (Dianoia): This element refers to the intellectual or moral aspect of a tragedy. It involves the ideas, themes, and moral dilemmas presented in the play. Aristotle believed that a good tragedy should provoke thought and contemplation in the audience. The characters’ actions and choices should raise important ethical questions.

Diction (Lexis): Diction refers to the language and dialogue used in the play. Aristotle argued that the language should be appropriate to the characters and their social status. He also emphasized the importance of clarity and vividness in the expression of ideas and emotions.

Spectacle (Opsis): While Aristotle acknowledged the visual and sensory aspects of a tragedy, he considered spectacle to be the least important of the six elements. Spectacle includes the visual elements of a production, such as costumes, scenery, and special effects. Aristotle believed that these should enhance the play but not be the primary focus.

Melody (Melos): In the context of Greek tragedy, melody referred to the musical elements of the performance, including the use of the chorus and musical accompaniment. The chorus played an integral role in Greek drama, providing commentary and reflection on the events of the play. While important in the original context, this element may be less emphasized in modern interpretations of tragedy.

Aristotle’s analysis of these six elements in “Poetics” provided a structured framework for understanding what makes a tragic drama effective and emotionally impactful. While his ideas were formulated within the context of ancient Greek theater, they continue to influence discussions on drama and literature in the present day, offering valuable insights into the components of compelling storytelling.

Catharsis: Aristotle introduced the concept of “catharsis,” which he described as the emotional purification or purging that occurs in the audience through the experience of tragedy. While the exact nature of catharsis remains a subject of debate, it highlights the emotional impact and psychological engagement that literature can have on its audience.

Medieval and Renaissance Europe (5th century CE to 17th century CE): 

Medieval and Renaissance Europe, spanning from the 5th century CE to the 17th century CE, marked a significant period of intellectual and cultural development. During this era, various shifts in thought and the arts occurred, influencing not only literature but also philosophy, religion, and politics. Here are some key characteristics and developments of this period:

Medieval Literature (5th to 15th century CE):

Feudal Society: Medieval Europe was characterized by a feudal social structure, where kings, lords, knights, and peasants played distinct roles. This hierarchical society often influenced the themes and settings of medieval literature.

Epic Poetry: Epic poetry was a prominent literary form during this period. Works like “Beowulf” (Old English) and “The Song of Roland” (Old French) celebrated heroic deeds, chivalry, and religious values.

Chivalric Romances: Chivalric romances were stories of knights and their quests, often featuring themes of courtly love. The Arthurian legends, including the tales of King Arthur, Lancelot, and the Holy Grail, were popular subjects.

Religious Literature: Christianity had a profound impact on medieval literature. Works like Dante Alighieri’s “Divine Comedy” explored themes of salvation, sin, and divine justice.

Renaissance (14th to 17th century CE):

Humanism: The Renaissance was marked by the revival of classical learning and humanism. Humanist scholars like Petrarch and Erasmus emphasized the value of human potential, classical literature, and the study of ancient languages.

Secularism: Renaissance literature often explored secular themes, celebrating human achievements, individualism, and worldly pleasures. The works of authors like Giovanni Boccaccio and Geoffrey Chaucer reflected this shift.

Shakespearean Drama: William Shakespeare, a central figure of the English Renaissance, wrote a diverse range of plays that explored human nature, politics, and the complexities of the human experience. His works, such as “Hamlet” and “Romeo and Juliet,” remain influential.

Sonnet Tradition: The Renaissance also saw the popularization of the sonnet form in poetry. Sonnet sequences, like Petrarch’s sonnets and Shakespeare’s sonnets, explored themes of love, beauty, and the passage of time.

Religious Reformation: The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in the early 16th century, led to religious and political upheaval. It had a profound impact on literature, with authors like John Milton and John Bunyan exploring religious themes in their works.

Medieval and Renaissance literature not only reflected the cultural and intellectual shifts of their respective eras but also laid the groundwork for future developments in literature and the arts. The transition from the medieval to the Renaissance period was marked by a shift from a predominantly religious and chivalric focus to one that embraced humanism, individualism, and a broader range of themes and genres in literature.

During Medieval and Renaissance Europe, literary criticism, as a formal and distinct field of study, was not as developed as it would become in later centuries. However, there were important shifts in thought and approaches to literature during these periods. Here’s an overview of literary criticism during Medieval and Renaissance Europe:

Medieval Literary Criticism (5th to 15th century CE):

Theological and Moral Approach: Medieval literary criticism was heavily influenced by religious and moral considerations. Scholars and theologians analyzed literature primarily in the context of Christian ethics and theology. They evaluated works based on their adherence to religious principles and their moral messages.

Allegorical Interpretation: A prevalent mode of literary interpretation during this period was allegory. Many works were seen as having hidden, allegorical meanings that conveyed spiritual or moral truths. For example, Dante Alighieri’s “Divine Comedy” was often interpreted allegorically, with each element representing various aspects of the soul’s journey to salvation.

Commentaries: The production of commentaries on classical and religious texts was a significant literary endeavor. These commentaries aimed to explain, analyze, and interpret the meaning of ancient and sacred texts, providing insights into both content and interpretation.

Classical Influence: Medieval scholars were influenced by classical works, particularly those of Aristotle and Plato. These ancient thinkers had a substantial impact on medieval thought, including literary analysis, although their ideas were often filtered through the lens of Christian theology.

Renaissance Literary Criticism (14th to 17th century CE):

Humanism and Classicism: The Renaissance witnessed a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature. Humanist scholars like Petrarch and Erasmus promoted the study of classical texts and the application of classical principles to literature. They emphasized a return to the literary ideals of antiquity.

Poetics and Rhetoric: The Renaissance saw a renewed interest in Aristotle’s “Poetics” and Cicero’s rhetoric. Poetics, in particular, gained prominence as a guide to understanding and creating literature. Scholars like Julius Caesar Scaliger wrote influential treatises on poetics during this period.

Textual Criticism: Renaissance scholars engaged in textual criticism, examining and comparing ancient manuscripts to establish more accurate and authoritative versions of classical and medieval texts. This rigorous approach contributed to a better understanding of literary works.

Literary Dialogues: Literary dialogues, in which characters engage in discussions about literature and aesthetics, became a popular form of literary criticism during the Renaissance. These dialogues allowed authors to explore various literary theories and ideas.

Rhetorical Analysis: Rhetoric played a significant role in Renaissance literary criticism. Authors and scholars explored the art of persuasion and the use of language in literature, with an emphasis on style, eloquence, and argumentation.

While formal literary criticism as a discipline was still in its early stages during these periods, the intellectual developments of the Medieval and Renaissance eras laid the foundation for more sophisticated and diverse approaches to the analysis and interpretation of literature in the centuries that followed. These periods saw a gradual shift from primarily theological and moral considerations to a greater emphasis on classical models and humanistic approaches to literary analysis.

Medieval and Renaissance Europe (5th century CE to 17th century CE):

In Medieval and Renaissance Europe, as you’ve mentioned, literary criticism was closely tied to religious and moral considerations, but there were distinct shifts in focus and approach between these two periods.

 Here’s a closer look at the approaches to literary criticism during these eras:

Medieval Literary Criticism (5th to 15th century CE):

Religious and Moral Emphasis: During the Middle Ages, literary criticism was primarily concerned with the moral and religious aspects of literature. Works of literature were evaluated based on their alignment with Christian values and teachings. The primary criterion for assessing a literary work was whether it conveyed virtuous or sinful behavior.

Allegorical Interpretation: Allegorical interpretation was a common method of analyzing literature during this period. It involved seeking hidden spiritual or moral meanings within texts. For instance, medieval scholars often interpreted characters and events in literature as symbols of Christian virtues, vices, or biblical stories.

Theology and Literature: Many scholars and critics of the Middle Ages were theologians or clergy members. They viewed literature as a tool for moral instruction and religious edification. Literary works were often seen as allegories of the Christian journey or as ways to teach moral lessons.

Dante Alighieri: Dante’s “Divine Comedy” exemplifies the fusion of literature and theology during this period. The poem is not only a literary masterpiece but also a theological and moral exploration of the afterlife, sin, and redemption.

Renaissance Literary Criticism (14th to 17th century CE):

Humanism and Classical Influence: In the Renaissance, there was a revival of interest in the classical works of Greece and Rome. Humanist scholars like Petrarch and Erasmus played pivotal roles in promoting the study of classical literature and applying classical principles to literary criticism. This marked a shift away from the sole focus on religious and moral concerns.

Poetics and Aesthetics: Renaissance critics began to explore literary works in terms of their artistic and aesthetic qualities. Aristotle’s “Poetics” regained prominence, and scholars like Julius Caesar Scaliger wrote treatises on poetics, guiding the analysis of literature based on classical ideals.

Secular Themes: Renaissance literature often explored secular themes, such as individualism, human potential, and the celebration of worldly beauty and pleasures. Works like Petrarch’s sonnets and Boccaccio’s “Decameron” reflect a broader range of human experiences and interests.

Rhetoric and Style: Rhetorical analysis and attention to style became key components of Renaissance literary criticism. Critics focused on the use of language, eloquence, and persuasion in literature.

Shakespearean Criticism: William Shakespeare’s works, such as “Hamlet” and “Macbeth,” became subjects of critical examination during the Renaissance. Shakespeare’s profound exploration of human psychology and his mastery of language garnered both admiration and critical scrutiny.

The Middle Ages were characterized by a predominantly religious and moral approach to literary criticism, with a strong emphasis on Christian values and allegorical interpretation. In contrast, the Renaissance witnessed a broader and more secular engagement with literature, inspired by classical ideals, aesthetics, and humanism, which paved the way for the development of modern literary criticism.

Sir Philip Sidney

Sir Philip Sidney, an influential figure in English Renaissance literature, indeed played a significant role in the development of more secular and humanistic approaches to literary analysis during the Renaissance period. 

Stephen Gosson: Stephen Gosson was an English writer and playwright who authored “The School of Abuse” in 1579. In this work, Gosson criticized the burgeoning theatrical and literary culture of the Elizabethan era, condemning poetry and drama as immoral and corrupting influences on society. He argued that such forms of entertainment were detrimental to moral values and should be avoided.

Sir Philip Sidney’s “Defence of Poesy”: On the other hand, Sir Philip Sidney, a prominent English poet and scholar, wrote “A Defence of Poesy” (also known as “An Apology for Poetry”) in response to Gosson’s attacks on literature and poetry. Sidney’s work, published posthumously in 1595, serves as a robust defense of poetry and literature. He argued that poetry has the power to elevate the human spirit, inspire virtuous actions, and provide moral guidance. Sidney contended that well-crafted literature, far from being corrupting, can be a source of ethical and intellectual enrichment.

These two contrasting viewpoints, represented by Gosson’s condemnation and Sidney’s defense, reflect the broader debates about the role of literature and poetry in society during the Renaissance. Sidney’s “Defence of Poesy” is particularly significant as it articulates a lasting defense of the value and virtue of poetry in the face of moral criticism.

Here’s an overview of Sir Philip Sidney’s contributions to literary criticism and his humanistic perspective:

“The Defence of Poesy” (or “An Apology for Poetry”): One of Sidney’s most renowned contributions to literary criticism is his essay “The Defence of Poesy,” written around 1580 but published posthumously in 1595. In this work, Sidney defends poetry and literature as valuable forms of expression and art, countering the criticisms that had often been directed at them. He argues that poetry has a unique capacity to convey moral and philosophical truths in an engaging and accessible manner. Sidney’s defense of poetry goes beyond religious or moral considerations, emphasizing its humanistic value and its ability to elevate the human spirit.

Humanism and Classical Influence: Sidney was deeply influenced by the humanist movement and the revival of classical learning during the Renaissance. Like other humanist scholars of his time, he believed in the importance of studying the classical texts of ancient Greece and Rome. This classical influence is evident in his appreciation for the works of classical poets like Homer, Virgil, and Horace, and he draws on classical ideas in “The Defence of Poesy.”

Mimesis and Artistic Expression: Sidney discusses the concept of “mimesis” in his essay, drawing on Aristotle’s ideas from “Poetics.” He argues that poetry and literature imitate and represent aspects of reality, and in doing so, they provide insights into the human condition. He champions the creative power of literature, asserting that poets are not mere imitators but imaginative creators who enrich and enlighten human understanding.

Renaissance Poetics: Sidney’s “The Defence of Poesy” contributes to the development of Renaissance poetics, which explored the nature and function of poetry. He emphasizes the importance of poetic inspiration, the role of the poet as a moral teacher, and the value of storytelling.

Literary Criticism as Advocacy: Sidney’s essay is not just a theoretical treatise; it is also a passionate defense of poetry and imaginative literature. He believed that literature had the power to inspire and instruct, and he sought to elevate its status in a culture that sometimes viewed it with suspicion.

Sir Philip Sidney’s “The Defence of Poesy” represents a significant shift in Renaissance literary criticism, moving away from purely religious and moral considerations and toward a more secular, humanistic, and aesthetic appreciation of literature as an art form. His work helped pave the way for a broader understanding of the value of literature in Western culture.

The Enlightenment (17th to 18th centuries):

The Enlightenment, spanning the 17th and 18th centuries, indeed ushered in a new era of systematic and rational approaches to literary criticism. During this period, thinkers such as John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, and Alexander Pope played pivotal roles in shaping literary criticism with their emphasis on reason, clarity, and aesthetics. 

John Dryden (1631-1700):

Neoclassical Ideals: Dryden is often regarded as one of the key figures in the neoclassical literary tradition of the Enlightenment. He advocated for a return to classical ideals and a focus on clarity, order, and reason in literature.

The Essay of Dramatick Poesie: Dryden’s influential essay “An Essay of Dramatick Poesie” (1668) is considered one of the earliest examples of English literary criticism. In this work, he engages in a dialogue with other critics, discussing the merits of ancient and modern drama. Dryden argues for the superiority of modern English drama while advocating for adherence to classical rules and principles.

Prefaces and Critical Essays: Dryden wrote prefaces and critical essays for his own works and those of other writers, offering thoughtful reflections on various aspects of literature, including the role of the poet, the importance of clarity in writing, and the principles of classical poetics.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744):

“An Essay on Criticism”: Pope’s influential work, “An Essay on Criticism” (1709), is a didactic poem that provides guidelines for good literary criticism. It stresses the importance of balance, moderation, and reason in criticism, advocating for sound judgment and a clear understanding of the rules of art.

“The Rape of the Lock”: In his satirical mock-epic poem, “The Rape of the Lock” (1712), Pope employed wit and humor to critique the frivolity and excesses of his society. Through his witty verse, he satirized the absurdities of aristocratic life and vanity.

Translation of Homer: Pope’s translation of Homer’s epics, “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey,” showcased his poetic skill and introduced classical literature to a wider English-speaking audience. His translations were praised for their clarity and accessibility.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784):

The Dictionary of the English Language: Johnson’s monumental work, “A Dictionary of the English Language” (1755), was not a literary criticism text per se, but it had a profound impact on English literature and language. His meticulous attention to definitions and usage helped standardize the English language, making it more precise and clear.

Literary Criticism in “The Rambler” and “The Idler”: Johnson’s essays in “The Rambler” and “The Idler” contained literary criticism and reflections on various aspects of literature and society. He championed moral and ethical clarity in writing and emphasized the importance of moral instruction in literature.

Prefaces to Shakespeare: Johnson’s “Prefaces to Shakespeare” (1765) included critical analyses and commentaries on Shakespeare’s works. He offered insights into the genius of Shakespeare and defended his literary stature.

These Enlightenment thinkers, including John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, and Alexander Pope, contributed to the development of literary criticism by advocating for reason, clarity, and classical ideals in literature. They laid the foundation for a more systematic and analytical approach to literary analysis, emphasizing the importance of rational judgment and aesthetic principles in evaluating literary works.

The Essay of Dramatick Poesie:  John Dryden

“The Essay of Dramatick Poesie,” written by John Dryden and published in 1668, is one of the most significant works of English literary criticism of the 17th century. In this essay, Dryden engages in a lively and imaginative dialogue, presenting various critical viewpoints through four characters: Crites, Eugenius, Lisideius, and Neander. The characters debate the merits and demerits of ancient and modern drama, particularly focusing on English and French drama.

In John Dryden’s “The Essay of Dramatick Poesie,” the four speakers engage in a discussion on various aspects of drama. Each character represents a distinct viewpoint, and they engage in a lively debate on the merits of classical and modern drama.

Here are the names of the four speakers and a brief overview of their positions in the discussion:

Crites (Sir Robert Howard): Crites represents the viewpoint of classical drama and advocates for the superiority of ancient Greek and Roman playwrights, such as Aristotle, Sophocles, and Euripides. He upholds the classical unities of time, place, and action and argues that modern drama falls short in comparison to the works of antiquity.

Eugenius (Sir Charles Dryden): Eugenius takes a more balanced approach and suggests that there are merits in both classical and modern drama. He acknowledges the achievements of classical playwrights but also praises the advancements and innovations of modern playwrights, especially in the English theater.

Lisideius (Sir Charles Sedley): Lisideius defends French drama, particularly the works of Pierre Corneille, and argues that the French have made significant contributions to dramatic theory and practice. He highlights the importance of clarity and reason in French drama.

Neander (John Dryden himself): Neander represents Dryden’s own viewpoint. He defends modern English drama, particularly the works of William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Neander argues that modern drama has evolved to capture the complexities of human nature and emotions. He also discusses the use of rhyme in drama.

These four characters engage in a spirited and often humorous debate throughout the essay, with each speaker presenting their arguments and counterarguments. Dryden uses this dialogue format to explore the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches to drama, ultimately allowing the reader to consider the various perspectives and form their own conclusions about the nature of dramatic poetry. The essay is not only a critical discussion but also a reflection of the changing landscape of English literature during the Restoration period.

Key points and themes discussed in “The Essay of Dramatick Poesie” include:

Comparison of Ancient and Modern Drama: The essay is structured as a discussion in which the characters express their views on whether the drama of the ancients (referring to classical Greek and Roman drama) is superior to the drama of the moderns (referring to contemporary English and French drama). The characters offer arguments for both sides of the debate.
Unity of Time, Place, and Action: One of the critical aspects discussed is the concept of the “three unities” derived from classical principles: unity of time (action should take place within a single day), unity of place (action should occur in a single location), and unity of action (the plot should have a single central theme). These unities were considered essential by neoclassical critics.
Variety and Diversity in Drama: The character Neander (often seen as Dryden’s mouthpiece) argues in favor of modern English drama. He defends the inclusion of variety and diversity in plots, settings, and character types, suggesting that these elements make modern drama more engaging and reflective of real life.
Use of Rhyme in Drama: The characters also discuss the use of rhyme in plays. Dryden, who was known for his mastery of verse, defends the use of rhyme in drama, countering the prevailing view that blank verse (unrhymed lines of iambic pentameter) is superior.
Shakespeare’s Genius: Throughout the essay, there are references to William Shakespeare’s plays and his unparalleled genius in English drama. Dryden and his characters hold Shakespeare in high regard and consider him a literary giant.
Impact on English Drama: “The Essay of Dramatick Poesie” had a significant impact on the development of English drama and critical thought. It contributed to the shaping of neoclassical principles in English literature and influenced subsequent generations of writers and critics.

Dryden’s essay is not only a critical discussion but also a celebration of the power and versatility of drama. Through its engaging and persuasive dialogue, it illustrates the evolving critical perspectives of the Restoration era and offers valuable insights into the changing tastes and preferences of English literature during the 17th century.

“An Essay on Criticism”:  Alexander Pope 

“An Essay on Criticism” is a poem written by Alexander Pope and first published in 1709. It is one of Pope’s most famous works and is a didactic poem that provides guidelines and principles for the proper and effective practice of literary criticism. In this poem, Pope offers advice to aspiring critics, emphasizing the importance of balance, reason, and good judgment in evaluating literary works.

Key themes and ideas explored in “An Essay on Criticism” include:

Sound Judgment: Pope argues that the most important quality for a critic is sound judgment. Critics should possess a keen sense of discernment to distinguish between good and bad literature. He suggests that critics should have “judgment true” and avoid extreme opinions.

Avoiding Extremes: Pope cautions against both excessive praise and excessive censure. He advises critics to avoid being overly harsh in their criticisms and to recognize that no writer is perfect. Extremes in criticism, whether overly positive or negative, can be detrimental to the understanding of literary works.

Use of Reason: Pope stresses the importance of reason and rational analysis in literary criticism. Critics should base their evaluations on thoughtful and logical considerations rather than on personal bias or emotional reactions.

Clarity and Precision: Pope advocates for clarity and precision in writing and criticism. He emphasizes the need for clear expression and the avoidance of vague or pompous language. He famously advises, “True ease in writing comes from art, not chance.”

Poetic Rules and Conventions: The poem also addresses the rules and conventions of poetry, including rhyme and meter. Pope suggests that poets should follow established rules and forms, but he also allows for creative variation and innovation within those boundaries.

Critics as Guides: Pope sees critics as guides who help readers navigate the world of literature. Critics should provide insights, context, and analysis that enhance the reader’s understanding and appreciation of a work.

Learning from the Past: Pope acknowledges that critics can benefit from studying the works of great poets of the past. He encourages critics to learn from the successes and failures of previous writers and to be well-versed in the literary tradition.

“An Essay on Criticism” is not only a guide for critics but also a reflection of Pope’s neoclassical aesthetics and his belief in the importance of reason, moderation, and adherence to classical principles in literature. The poem is written in heroic couplets, a form of rhymed poetry that Pope employed with great skill, and it has had a lasting influence on the practice of literary criticism and the understanding of the role of critics in the literary world.

The Romantic movement

The Romantic movement, which emerged in the late 18th century and extended into the 19th century, indeed represented a significant departure from the rationalist and classical views of the Enlightenment. Romanticism celebrated the emotional, imaginative, and individualistic aspects of literature, art, and culture.

 Several Romantic poets and critics, including William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, played pivotal roles in shaping the literary landscape of this era. Here’s a closer look at their contributions to Romantic literary criticism:

William Wordsworth (1770-1850):

“Lyrical Ballads”: Wordsworth, along with Coleridge, co-authored “Lyrical Ballads” in 1798, a groundbreaking collection of poems that marked the beginning of the Romantic movement in English literature. The preface to this work, written by Wordsworth, is often considered a foundational document of Romantic literary theory.

Nature and Imagination: Wordsworth’s critical views were deeply influenced by his belief in the spiritual and transformative power of nature. He argued that poetry should arise from the “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” and should be grounded in a close relationship with nature. He celebrated the “real language of men” and the use of simple, everyday language in poetry.

The Sublime: Wordsworth, like other Romantic thinkers, explored the concept of the sublime in literature and nature. He believed that encounters with the sublime, which could evoke awe and terror, were essential for the development of the individual’s emotional and imaginative faculties.

The “Preface to Lyrical Ballads” is a critical essay written by William Wordsworth and first published in 1800. It is considered one of the most significant documents in the history of English literary criticism, as it outlines the principles and philosophy of the Romantic movement and, more specifically, Wordsworth’s and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s approach to poetry in their joint publication “Lyrical Ballads.”

Key points and themes discussed in the “Preface to Lyrical Ballads” include:

Spontaneous Expression: Wordsworth argues that poetry should be the result of the “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” He emphasizes the importance of genuine emotion and personal experience as the source of poetic inspiration.

Language and Diction: Wordsworth advocates for the use of everyday language and a simple, natural style in poetry. He rejects the overly ornate and artificial diction of the poetry of his time and seeks to create a more accessible and authentic form of expression.

Poetry as Reflection of the Ordinary: Wordsworth believes that poetry should celebrate the experiences and emotions of common people and the beauty of ordinary, everyday life. He calls for a focus on rural and rustic subjects, as well as the simple joys and sorrows of the human heart.

Nature as a Source of Inspiration: Nature plays a central role in Wordsworth’s poetry and in the “Preface.” He argues that contact with nature provides a profound source of poetic inspiration and spiritual renewal. Nature is portrayed as a teacher and a healer.

The Role of the Imagination: Wordsworth discusses the creative power of the imagination in shaping poetic works. He suggests that the imagination has the capacity to transform ordinary experiences into extraordinary poetry.

Emotion and Truth: Wordsworth contends that poetry, at its best, conveys emotional truths and authentic human experiences. He values the expression of deep feelings over artifice and conventional poetic forms.

The “Lyrical Ballads” Experiment: The “Preface” serves as an introduction to “Lyrical Ballads,” a collection of poems co-authored by Wordsworth and Coleridge. Wordsworth explains the rationale behind the collection, which includes both lyrical and balladic forms. He also outlines the idea of a “poetic diction” suitable for the aims of the collection.

The “Preface to Lyrical Ballads” is significant not only for its influence on Romantic poetry but also for its broader impact on the development of English literary theory and criticism. It marks a shift away from the formal and artificial conventions of 18th-century poetry toward a more personal, emotional, and nature-oriented style of poetic expression, which became a hallmark of Romantic literature.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834):

Biographia Literaria: Coleridge’s “Biographia Literaria” (1817) is a significant work of literary criticism and autobiography. In it, he discussed his views on poetry, imagination, and the nature of the creative process. He delved into the concept of “imagination” as a unifying and creative faculty.

The Imagination and the Fancy: Coleridge distinguished between two modes of imagination: the “primary imagination” and the “secondary imagination.” The primary imagination was seen as a divine creative force, while the secondary imagination involved the artistic and imaginative application of ideas. This distinction influenced later discussions on the imagination in Romantic literature.

Literary Criticism and Analysis: Coleridge’s critical essays and commentaries on literature, including his lectures on Shakespeare, showcased his deep insights into the nature of poetry and the psychological dimensions of literary works. His essays, such as “On Poesy or Art” and “On the Principles of Genial Criticism,” explored the role of the critic and the appreciation of literary works.

Both Wordsworth and Coleridge, along with other Romantic writers and critics, challenged the Enlightenment emphasis on reason, order, and classical aesthetics. They championed the emotional, imaginative, and spontaneous qualities of literature and believed that poetry had the power to connect individuals to their inner emotions and to the natural world. Their contributions to literary criticism helped shape the Romantic literary tradition, which celebrated individualism, the sublime, and the profound impact of the imagination on literature and the human spirit.

“A Defence of Poetry” (1821):

“A Defence of Poetry” is one of Shelley’s most significant critical works. It was written in response to an essay by Thomas Love Peacock that criticized poetry. In Shelley’s essay, he passionately defends the value and significance of poetry in human life and culture.

The essay is often considered a manifesto for the Romantic poets and their beliefs about the transformative power of poetry and the imagination.

In “A Defence of Poetry,” Shelley argues that poetry is the highest form of human expression and that poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world. He believes that poetry has the power to shape and change society by inspiring readers to imagine and strive for a better world.

Shelley also explores the relationship between poetry and truth, emphasizing that poetry reveals truths that cannot be expressed through prose or logical argument. He sees poetry as a source of moral and emotional education

John Keat’s Negative Capability

Negative Capability is a concept introduced by the English Romantic poet John Keats in a letter to his brothers George and Tom Keats in December 1817. It refers to a poet’s or artist’s capacity to embrace uncertainty, doubt, ambiguity, and paradox without pursuing logical resolutions or answers. Negative Capability is the ability to remain content with “uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.”

Key points about Keats’s Negative Capability:

Embracing Ambiguity: Negative Capability encourages poets and artists to be comfortable with the inherent ambiguity and complexities of human experience. Instead of seeking to resolve or simplify these complexities, they should accept them as part of life’s richness.

Surrendering to Uncertainty: Keats suggests that the creative mind should surrender to moments of doubt and uncertainty, allowing them to coexist without seeking immediate intellectual or rational closure. This open-mindedness can lead to profound insights and creative expression.

Intuition and Sensibility: Negative Capability values intuition, emotions, and sensibility as important sources of knowledge and creativity. It encourages artists to tap into their inner feelings and instincts rather than relying solely on reason and logic.

Avoiding “irritable reaching”: Keats criticizes the urge to rush to conclusions or to force explanations. This “irritable reaching after fact and reason” can stifle creativity and limit one’s ability to engage with the mysteries of life and art.

Literary Application: Keats himself demonstrated Negative Capability in his poetry. His willingness to explore the complexities of human emotions, such as in his odes like “Ode to a Nightingale” and “Ode on a Grecian Urn,” reflects this concept.

Negative Capability has been influential not only in the field of poetry but also in broader discussions of creativity, aesthetics, and the human experience. It emphasizes the value of remaining open to the profound and often contradictory aspects of existence, allowing for a deeper and richer engagement with the world and the arts.

Victorian Era:

The Victorian Era, which spanned from 1832  (1837) to 1901 during the reign of Queen Victoria in the United Kingdom, was a period of significant literary and cultural development. In the realm of literary criticism, several important trends and figures emerged. Here are some key aspects of literary criticism during the Victorian Era:

Influence of Romanticism and Neoclassicism: Victorian literary criticism was influenced by the preceding Romantic and Neoclassical movements. Critics grappled with the legacy of Romantic poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge while also considering the classical ideals of restraint and order.

Rise of the Essay: Literary criticism during the Victorian Era was often expressed through essays. Prominent essayists like Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, and Matthew Arnold played crucial roles in shaping critical discourse. Their essays covered a wide range of topics, from literature to culture and society.

Concerns with Morality and Ethics: Victorian critics were often preoccupied with moral and ethical questions in literature. They assessed literary works based on their moral content and how they contributed to the moral improvement of society. This was influenced by the Victorian era’s strong moral and religious values.

Realism and Social Critique: The Victorian Era saw the emergence of realism in literature and criticism. Critics like John Ruskin and Charles Dickens advocated for literature that depicted the realities of everyday life and critiqued societal issues, such as poverty and industrialization.

John Ruskin: Ruskin was a prominent critic of the Victorian Era known for his writings on art and architecture. His work, “Modern Painters,” examined the relationship between art, nature, and society. He also wrote extensively on topics like aesthetics and political economy.

Matthew Arnold: Matthew Arnold is another significant Victorian critic known for his essays and critical works. He advocated for the importance of culture and “sweetness and light” in society. His essay “Culture and Anarchy” discussed the role of culture in promoting social harmony.

Thomas Carlyle: Carlyle was a prolific essayist and critic whose works delved into social and political issues. He is known for his critique of industrialization and his belief in the importance of strong leadership.

The Pre-Raphaelites: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group of artists and writers, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Ruskin, sought to return to the techniques and styles of art and literature before the High Renaissance. Their works often contained detailed symbolism and themes of medievalism.

Conflict Between Science and Religion: The Victorian Era was marked by debates between science and religion. Critics engaged with the implications of scientific discoveries, such as Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, on religious beliefs and the interpretation of literature.

Development of Literary Periodicals: Literary criticism was frequently published in literary periodicals like “The Edinburgh Review,” “The Quarterly Review,” and “The Westminster Review.” These periodicals played a crucial role in shaping literary opinions and promoting critical discourse.

Female Critics: Women like George Eliot (the pen name of Mary Ann Evans) contributed to Victorian literary criticism. Her essays explored topics such as the position of women in society and the role of literature in moral education.

Continued Emphasis on Poetry: Despite the rise of the novel as a dominant literary form, poetry remained significant in Victorian literature and criticism. Poets like Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and Robert Browning received both praise and critique.

In summary, Victorian Era literary criticism was characterized by a focus on morality, social critique, realism, and a complex relationship with the legacies of Romanticism and Neoclassicism. Critics of this era engaged with the pressing issues and intellectual debates of their time, leaving a lasting impact on the development of literary criticism in the 19th and 20th centuries.

John Ruskin

John Ruskin (1819-1900) was an English writer, art critic, and social thinker who played a significant role in Victorian Era Criticism. He was a prolific author, known for his writings on art, architecture, literature, social issues, and the environment. Ruskin’s works had a profound impact on Victorian intellectual and cultural life, and his ideas continue to influence fields such as art criticism, aesthetics, and environmentalism. Here are some key aspects of Ruskin’s life and contributions:

Art Criticism and Aesthetics: Ruskin is perhaps best known for his work as an art critic and theorist. He wrote extensively on the works of painters like J.M.W. Turner and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. His book “Modern Painters,” published in multiple volumes, explored the principles of art and aesthetics. Ruskin championed the idea that art should convey moral and spiritual truths and should be a reflection of nature.

Architectural Criticism: Ruskin was a prominent architectural critic who believed that architecture should be true to its materials and functions. He advocated for the preservation of historic buildings and criticized the impact of industrialization on architecture. His book “The Stones of Venice” is a notable work on architectural history and theory.

Social Critique: Ruskin was deeply concerned about the social and economic issues of his time. He wrote extensively about the effects of industrialization and capitalism on workers and the environment. His essay “Unto This Last” contains his economic and social theories, which had a significant influence on the development of the British labor movement and the ideas of figures like Mahatma Gandhi.

Educational Philosophy: Ruskin had strong views on education and believed that it should nurture both the intellect and the moral character of individuals. He was an early advocate for a holistic approach to education that incorporated art, nature, and moral development.

Nature and the Environment: Ruskin had a deep love for nature and the natural world. He believed that a close connection to nature was essential for human well-being and creativity. His writings on nature and the environment foreshadowed later environmentalist movements.

Literary Works: In addition to his critical and philosophical writings, Ruskin authored works of literature and travel. His autobiographical work “Praeterita” provides insights into his life and experiences.

Legacy: Ruskin’s ideas influenced a wide range of figures, including artists, writers, architects, and social reformers. His impact extended beyond his own time, and his writings continue to be studied and debated in various fields.

John Ruskin’s multidisciplinary approach to criticism and his exploration of the relationships between art, society, and nature make him a significant figure in Victorian literature and thought. His writings challenged conventional wisdom and continue to inspire discussions on topics ranging from aesthetics to social justice and environmental ethics.

Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) was a prominent English poet, critic, and cultural commentator of the Victorian era. He is known for his contributions to literature, particularly his critical essays and poetry, as well as his role as an influential figure in Victorian Era Criticism. Here are some key aspects of Matthew Arnold’s life and contributions:

Poetry: Arnold is recognized as a poet, though he is often better known for his prose works. His poetry often reflects his concern for the moral and cultural condition of society. Notable poems include “Dover Beach,” “The Scholar-Gipsy,” and “Thyrsis.” In “Dover Beach,” he explores themes of disillusionment and the erosion of faith in a changing world.

Literary Criticism: Arnold was a prominent literary critic and essayist. His critical writings include essays on Shakespeare, Milton, and other literary figures. He advocated for a more objective and disinterested approach to criticism, emphasizing the importance of dispassionate analysis and intellectual rigor.

Culture and Anarchy: Arnold’s book “Culture and Anarchy,” published in 1869, is one of his most significant works. In it, he discusses the role of culture in society and advocates for a middle way between the forces of anarchy and authority. He emphasizes the importance of “sweetness and light” as cultural values.

Education: Arnold had a keen interest in education and its role in shaping individuals and society. He served as an inspector of schools and used his experiences to comment on the state of education in England. His essay “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time” explores the relationship between criticism and education.

Religion and Morality: Arnold’s views on religion evolved over time. He questioned traditional religious beliefs and, in his poetry and essays, explored themes related to faith, morality, and the loss of religious certainty in the modern world. “Dover Beach” is a notable example of his reflections on these themes.

Influence and Legacy: Matthew Arnold’s writings and ideas had a significant impact on Victorian thought and culture. He played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape of his time, particularly in discussions about the role of culture and education in society.

Continued Relevance: Arnold’s concerns about culture, education, and the tensions between individualism and social cohesion continue to resonate in contemporary discussions about the humanities, the role of literature in education, and the challenges of cultural pluralism.

Matthew Arnold’s contributions as a poet, critic, and cultural commentator reflect the intellectual and social concerns of the Victorian era. His writings remain important for understanding the cultural and intellectual milieu of the 19th century and continue to be studied and discussed in the context of literary and cultural studies.

Arnold as a critic

Matthew Arnold is recognized as a significant literary critic of the Victorian era. His critical writings, which spanned a wide range of topics and literary figures, reflect his distinctive approach to criticism and his engagement with the cultural and intellectual issues of his time. 

Here are some key aspects of Arnold as a critic:

Objective Criticism: Arnold advocated for a more objective and disinterested approach to criticism. He believed that critics should aim for impartiality and intellectual rigor in their evaluations of literary works. This stance was a response to what he perceived as the emotional and uncritical nature of much contemporary criticism.

Classicism and the Critical Tradition: Arnold drew on classical ideals of order, clarity, and proportion in his critical approach. He often referenced classical models of criticism and looked to the critical tradition, including Aristotle and Longinus, for guidance.

The Function of Criticism: In his essay “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time” (1864), Arnold argued that the primary role of criticism is to “see the object as in itself it really is.” He believed that criticism should aim to understand the essence of a work of art and to assess its quality and value objectively.

Literary Figures and Works: Arnold’s criticism covered a wide range of literary figures, including Shakespeare, Milton, and Goethe, among others. His essays explored their contributions to literature and their place in the canon of great writers.

Literary and Cultural Trends: Arnold’s critical writings often engaged with contemporary literary and cultural trends. He expressed concerns about the decline of poetry and the erosion of religious and moral values in the modern world. He also examined the impact of industrialization and urbanization on society and culture.

Culture and Anarchy: Arnold’s book “Culture and Anarchy” (1869) is a significant work of cultural criticism. In it, he discussed the role of culture in society and advocated for the pursuit of “sweetness and light” as cultural values. He examined the tensions between anarchy and authority in society and the potential role of culture in addressing those tensions.

Educational Views: Arnold’s experiences as an inspector of schools influenced his views on education. He believed in the importance of a liberal education that fostered intellectual and moral development. His essay “Literature and Science” explores the relationship between these two fields and their place in education.

Legacy: Matthew Arnold’s influence as a critic extended beyond his own time. His emphasis on objectivity, cultural values, and the critical examination of literature contributed to the development of modern literary criticism. His ideas continue to be discussed and debated in the fields of literary studies and cultural studies.

Matthew Arnold’s critical writings reflect his commitment to the thoughtful and dispassionate examination of literature and culture. He played a significant role in shaping critical discourse in the Victorian era and left a lasting legacy in the field of literary criticism.

Matthew Arnold’s essay “The Study of Poetry” was originally published in 1880 as the introduction to his collection of poems titled “Poems: A New Edition.” In this essay, Arnold reflects on the nature and purpose of poetry and offers his views on how poetry should be approached and studied. Here are some key points from Arnold’s essay “The Study of Poetry”:

Definition of Poetry: Arnold begins by attempting to define poetry. He describes poetry as “a criticism of life” and emphasizes its role in providing a thoughtful and reflective commentary on the human condition. He believes that poetry offers a way to understand and respond to the challenges and complexities of life.

The Function of Poetry: According to Arnold, the primary function of poetry is to “awaken our dormant sensibilities.” He argues that poetry has the power to stir the emotions and deepen our capacity for empathy and understanding. It can help individuals connect with the essential truths and feelings of human existence.

The Critical Element: Arnold stresses the critical and evaluative aspect of poetry. He believes that poetry should be a form of artistic and intellectual criticism that engages with life’s questions and dilemmas. Poetry, in his view, should not be mere escapism but should confront the realities of existence.

The Scholar-Critic: Arnold argues for a scholarly and critical approach to the study of poetry. He encourages readers to engage with poetry as a serious intellectual pursuit and emphasizes the importance of rigorous analysis and interpretation. He believes that critics should strive for objectivity and impartiality.

The Best That Has Been Thought and Said: Arnold famously introduces the concept of “the best that has been thought and said” as a standard for evaluating literature and culture. He suggests that this standard can help individuals distinguish between what is truly valuable and enduring in literature and what is ephemeral.

Culture and Literature: Arnold’s essay underscores the relationship between culture and literature. He believes that literature, especially poetry, plays a crucial role in the development of a cultured and intellectually refined society.

The Scholar-Critic and the Creative Writer: Arnold acknowledges that the scholar-critic and the creative writer (poet) have different roles but contends that both are essential to the world of literature. While the poet creates new works, the critic helps readers appreciate and understand them.

In “The Study of Poetry,” Matthew Arnold offers a vision of poetry as a serious and intellectually engaging art form. He advocates for a thoughtful and critical approach to the study of literature and poetry, emphasizing the role of poetry in fostering cultural and intellectual growth. Arnold’s ideas in this essay reflect his broader views on the relationship between literature, culture, and human development.

The “touchstone method” is a literary or critical approach used to evaluate and understand the quality, authenticity, or worth of a literary work. It is often employed as a metaphorical tool or criterion against which other works or elements are measured. The term “touchstone” originates from a real-world object: a small, dark stone (often made of basalt or slate) that was historically used to test the purity of precious metals like gold and silver.

In literature and criticism, the touchstone method is used to assess various aspects of a text, such as its themes, characters, style, and overall impact. 

Benchmark for Comparison: The touchstone, in this context, serves as a standard or benchmark against which other works are compared. It represents a literary work that is considered exemplary or of high quality. By comparing a new or unfamiliar work to the touchstone, critics and readers can gauge its merit.

Critical Evaluation: Critics and scholars often use well-established literary classics or revered texts as touchstones. These classics are considered to possess certain qualities, such as depth of theme, literary craftsmanship, or enduring relevance, that make them stand out in the literary canon.

Assessment of Merit: When using the touchstone method, critics and readers assess whether a new work measures up to the standards set by the touchstone. This evaluation can help determine the strengths and weaknesses of the new work and whether it deserves recognition or acclaim.

Identification of Commonalities: By comparing a work to a touchstone, critics can identify commonalities, themes, or stylistic elements that may contribute to its overall assessment. This process can provide insights into the literary tradition and the influence of past works on contemporary ones.

Contextual Understanding: The touchstone method also helps in understanding the historical and cultural context of a literary work. It allows readers to explore how a new work responds to or diverges from established literary conventions and norms.

Enhanced Appreciation: For readers, the touchstone method can enhance their appreciation of literature by encouraging them to engage in critical analysis and by providing a basis for evaluating the quality and significance of a work.

It’s important to note that while the touchstone method can be a valuable tool for critical evaluation, it is not a rigid formula. Literary merit is often subjective and open to interpretation, and what one reader or critic considers a touchstone may differ from another’s perspective. Additionally, contemporary works can challenge or expand the criteria set by traditional touchstones, leading to ongoing discussions and debates within the realm of literary criticism.

Walter Pater as a Critic

Walter Pater (1839-1894) was a prominent English essayist, art critic, and literary critic associated with the Aesthetic Movement of the late 19th century. His approach to criticism was distinctive and had a significant influence on the development of modern literary and art criticism. 

Aestheticism: Pater is often closely associated with the Aesthetic Movement, which emphasized the pursuit of beauty and sensual experience as the primary goals of art and life. He believed that the aesthetic experience, characterized by intense and immediate sensory pleasure, was the highest form of human experience.

“Art for Art’s Sake”: Pater famously coined the phrase “art for art’s sake,” which encapsulates the Aesthetic Movement’s belief in the autonomy of art. He argued that art should be appreciated and valued in and of itself, without the need for moral, didactic, or utilitarian purposes.

The Critic as Artist: Pater believed that the critic had a creative role to play in the appreciation and interpretation of art. He saw the act of criticism as a form of artistic expression, and he valued the critic’s ability to capture the essence of a work of art through vivid and impressionistic language.

Style and Language: Pater’s writing is known for its rich and sensuous prose style. He believed that the language of criticism should be as artful and evocative as the works of art it discussed. His essays often read like works of literature in their own right.

Appreciation of Sensation: Pater’s criticism emphasized the importance of sensory experience in art. He encouraged readers to immerse themselves fully in the aesthetic experience of a work of art, whether it be a painting, a piece of music, or a piece of literature.

Studies in the History of the Renaissance: Pater’s most famous work of criticism is “Studies in the History of the Renaissance” (1873), which includes essays on artists and writers of the Italian Renaissance, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. In these essays, he explored the idea of “the moment” in art and the fleeting nature of beauty.

Controversy and Reception: Pater’s ideas on aesthetics and his celebration of hedonism and sensuality in art were controversial in his time. Some critics and scholars found his approach unconventional and even decadent. However, his work also found a receptive audience among those who appreciated his celebration of the aesthetic experience.

Legacy: Walter Pater’s writings had a lasting impact on the development of modern criticism, particularly in the realms of art and literature. His ideas contributed to the emergence of symbolism and the fin de siècle movements in literature and art. Figures like Oscar Wilde were influenced by Pater’s aesthetic philosophy.

Walter Pater’s approach to criticism, characterized by its emphasis on the sensory and aesthetic experience of art, remains a subject of study and discussion in the fields of literature and art history. His essays continue to be read and appreciated for their eloquent and imaginative exploration of the nature of beauty and the role of the critic in conveying it.

“Art for Art’s Sake”:

“Art for Art’s Sake” is a phrase and concept that emerged in the 19th century, particularly during the Aesthetic Movement, and it has had a profound influence on the philosophy of art and literature. This concept suggests that the primary purpose of art is the creation of beauty and the pursuit of artistic expression itself, without any ulterior motives, such as moral, political, or didactic messages. Here are key points related to “Art for Art’s Sake”:

Autonomy of Art: The central idea behind “Art for Art’s Sake” is the belief in the autonomy of art. It argues that art should be appreciated and valued on its own terms, independent of any external considerations. Art is seen as a realm of pure creativity and aesthetic experience.

Rejection of Utilitarianism: Proponents of “Art for Art’s Sake” reject the idea that art should serve practical or utilitarian purposes. They oppose the notion that art should convey moral lessons, promote social values, or have a specific agenda beyond its aesthetic qualities.

Emphasis on Sensuality and Beauty: Aestheticism, which is closely associated with “Art for Art’s Sake,” places a strong emphasis on the sensory and sensual aspects of art. Beauty, often understood in a broad and unconventional sense, becomes the primary focus of artistic creation and appreciation.

Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde: Walter Pater, an English essayist and critic, is often credited with articulating the principles of “Art for Art’s Sake” in his writings, especially in his essay “The Renaissance” (1873). Oscar Wilde, the famous Irish playwright and writer, was another prominent advocate of this philosophy. Wilde’s famous preface to “The Picture of Dorian Gray” is a notable example of his embrace of “Art for Art’s Sake.”

Decadence: “Art for Art’s Sake” was associated with the Decadent Movement, a literary and artistic movement that emerged in the late 19th century. Decadent artists often explored themes of aestheticism, hedonism, and the idea of art as an escape from the constraints of society and morality.

Criticism and Controversy: The concept of “Art for Art’s Sake” was met with criticism and controversy in its time. Some saw it as overly self-indulgent, detached from social concerns, and morally questionable. Critics argued that art should have a moral or social purpose.

Legacy: The legacy of “Art for Art’s Sake” can be seen in the development of modernist literature and art in the 20th century. Modernist writers and artists often continued to explore the autonomy of art and the significance of pure artistic expression.

“Art for Art’s Sake” continues to be a relevant and debated concept in discussions about the nature and purpose of art and literature. It remains a foundational idea in the study of aesthetics and has had a lasting impact on artistic movements and theories.

T S Eliot

T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) was not only one of the most influential poets of the 20th century but also a prominent literary critic. His critical essays had a profound impact on the field of literary criticism and played a pivotal role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the Modernist period. Eliot’s approach to criticism was characterized by his erudition, intellectual rigor, and a deep engagement with literary tradition. Here are key aspects of T.S. Eliot’s role as a literary critic:

Tradition and the Individual Talent: In his influential essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” (1919), Eliot argued that poets should not be seen as isolated creators but as contributors to a larger literary tradition. He emphasized the idea that each new work of art should be understood in the context of the literary heritage that came before it. This essay had a significant impact on the development of Modernist poetry.

The Metaphysical Poets: Eliot’s critical work often involved the rediscovery and reevaluation of earlier literary traditions. In his essay “The Metaphysical Poets” (1921), he praised poets like John Donne and George Herbert for their use of complex and intellectual imagery. He coined the term “dissociation of sensibility” to describe a perceived separation between thought and feeling in later poetry.

The Waste Land: Eliot’s own poem, “The Waste Land” (1922), became a focal point for his critical essays. He wrote extensive notes to accompany the poem, explaining its many references and allusions. This practice encouraged readers to engage with the poem on multiple levels and to explore its connections to various literary and cultural traditions.

Impersonality: Eliot championed the idea of literary impersonality, which suggests that the poet should aim to detach themselves from their personal emotions and experiences. This concept is closely related to his belief in tradition and the objective nature of art.

Dante and Tradition: Eliot’s admiration for the works of Dante Alighieri was a recurring theme in his criticism. He saw Dante as a poet who successfully integrated personal experience with tradition, and he used Dante’s example to illustrate his ideas about the relationship between the individual and the literary tradition.

Criticism of His Contemporaries: Eliot did not shy away from critiquing the work of his contemporaries. He offered assessments of other Modernist poets, such as Ezra Pound and W.B. Yeats, and engaged in critical discussions about the direction of modern poetry.

Religious and Philosophical Themes: Eliot’s interest in religious and philosophical themes is evident in both his poetry and criticism. He explored issues related to faith, doubt, and the search for meaning in the modern world.

Legacy: T.S. Eliot’s work as a critic continues to be widely studied and influential. His essays remain essential reading for students of literature, and his ideas about tradition, impersonality, and the role of the poet in society continue to be discussed and debated by scholars and critics.

T.S. Eliot’s dual role as a poet and a critic made him a central figure in the Modernist literary movement, and his critical writings continue to be an important part of his legacy in the world of literature and literary theory.

Tradition and the Individual Talent

“Tradition and the Individual Talent” is a seminal essay by T.S. Eliot, first published in 1919. In this essay, Eliot presents his views on the relationship between tradition and the creative process, particularly in poetry. Here are key points from the essay:

The Dissociation of Sensibility: Eliot begins the essay by lamenting what he calls the “dissociation of sensibility” that occurred in English poetry after the metaphysical poets of the 17th century. He believes that a separation occurred between thought and feeling, and this separation was detrimental to poetry.

The Historical Sense: Eliot argues that poets should have a “historical sense,” which means they should be aware of and connected to the literary tradition that precedes them. He sees this sense of tradition as essential for the poet’s creativity.

The Poet’s Relationship with the Past: According to Eliot, the poet’s relationship with the past is not a passive one but an active engagement. The poet does not merely imitate the past; instead, they use their awareness of tradition to create something new and original.

The Objective Correlative: Eliot introduces the concept of the “objective correlative,” which refers to a set of objects, situations, or events that evoke a specific emotional response in the reader. He argues that this is a crucial aspect of effective poetry.

Impersonality: Eliot emphasizes the idea of literary “impersonality.” He suggests that the poet should strive to detach themselves from their personal emotions and experiences in their work. This detachment allows the poet to use language and imagery more effectively to communicate universal themes.

The Poet as Catalyst: Eliot likens the poet to a catalyst in a chemical reaction. The poet’s emotions and experiences are transformed into a new poetic substance, and the poet’s personality is submerged in the creation of art.

The Continuation of Tradition: Eliot contends that the poet’s work adds to the ongoing tradition of literature. Each new work of art is in conversation with the past and contributes to the evolution of that tradition.

The Role of Criticism: Eliot sees criticism as a valuable tool for understanding and evaluating poetry. He suggests that criticism should focus on the work itself and its objective qualities rather than on biographical or subjective elements.

“Tradition and the Individual Talent” had a profound impact on Modernist poetry and literary criticism. It encouraged a more objective and formalist approach to the study of literature, emphasizing the role of tradition and the detachment of the poet from their work. Eliot’s ideas continue to be influential in discussions about poetry and literary tradition.

The Dissociation of Sensibility:

In T.S. Eliot’s essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” he introduces the concept of the “dissociation of sensibility” to describe a perceived separation or split that occurred in English poetry after the metaphysical poets of the 17th century. This concept is a key point in Eliot’s argument about the relationship between tradition and the creative process in poetry.

Here’s a closer look at the concept of the “dissociation of sensibility” as presented by Eliot:

Definition: Eliot uses the term “dissociation of sensibility” to describe a division or disconnection between thought and feeling in English poetry. He suggests that in earlier periods, especially during the time of the metaphysical poets like John Donne and George Herbert, there was a unity of thought and feeling in poetry. This unity allowed poets to express complex emotions and ideas through their verse.

Historical Context: Eliot argues that after the metaphysical poets, this unity began to break down, and poets became less capable of expressing both deep intellectual thought and intense emotion within the same poem. He attributes this shift to various historical and cultural factors.

Loss of Tradition: Eliot contends that as poetry developed and changed, poets became less connected to the poetic traditions that had preceded them. This loss of tradition led to a weakening of the poetic sensibility and a diminished ability to convey profound emotions and ideas.

Emphasis on Emotion: Eliot suggests that in the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a growing emphasis on emotion in poetry at the expense of intellectual depth. Poets became more concerned with personal expression and sentimentality, and this led to a decline in the precision and complexity of their work.

Impact on Poetry: The dissociation of sensibility, according to Eliot, resulted in a decline in the quality of English poetry. Poets lost the ability to effectively blend intellectual and emotional elements in their work, and poetry became less profound and meaningful as a result.

Eliot’s concept of the dissociation of sensibility underscores his argument that poets should strive to reconnect with the poetic tradition and find ways to reunite thought and feeling in their work. He believes that this reconnection with tradition and a more objective approach to poetry can lead to a revitalization of the poetic sensibility and the creation of more powerful and enduring works of art.

The 20th century was a period of significant innovation and diversity in literary criticism. Literary critics in this era explored a wide range of approaches and perspectives, reflecting the diverse literary and cultural movements that characterized the century. Here are some notable literary critics and critical movements from the 20th century:

New Criticism: New Criticism, which emerged in the early 20th century, focused on close reading and formal analysis of literary texts. Prominent New Critics included Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren, and John Crowe Ransom. They emphasized the text’s internal coherence and the importance of paradox and ambiguity.

Russian Formalism: Russian Formalism, a school of literary criticism that originated in Russia, focused on the formal and structural aspects of literature. Key figures included Viktor Shklovsky, Roman Jakobson, and Boris Eichenbaum. They introduced concepts like “defamiliarization” to analyze how literary devices affect readers’ perceptions.

Psychoanalytic Criticism: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories influenced literary criticism throughout the 20th century. Psychoanalytic critics like Jacques Lacan and Norman Holland explored the psychological aspects of literature, including the analysis of characters’ motivations and unconscious desires.

Marxist Criticism: Marxist critics, such as Georg Lukács and Raymond Williams, applied Marxist theory to literature, examining how economic and social structures are reflected in literary works. They focused on class struggles, ideology, and the role of literature in society.

Feminist Criticism: Feminist literary criticism emerged in the mid-20th century and aimed to analyze literature through a feminist lens, focusing on gender roles, representation of women, and the portrayal of female characters. Prominent feminist critics included Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, and Elaine Showalter.

Postcolonial Criticism: Postcolonial criticism emerged in the latter half of the 20th century, analyzing literature from former colonial regions. Critics like Edward Said and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak explored issues of identity, power, and cultural hybridity in postcolonial literature.

Structuralism and Semiotics: Structuralist critics, such as Roland Barthes and Claude Lévi-Strauss, applied linguistic and structural principles to literature. Semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, played a significant role in analyzing literary texts.

Deconstruction: Deconstruction, associated with Jacques Derrida, challenged traditional notions of language, meaning, and textuality. Deconstructionists questioned the stability of language and the existence of fixed meanings in texts.

Cultural Studies: Cultural studies scholars, including Stuart Hall and Raymond Williams, examined the intersection of culture, literature, and society. They analyzed popular culture, media, and the role of ideology in shaping cultural narratives.

Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-response critics, such as Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, focused on the reader’s role in interpreting and constructing meaning in literature. They explored how readers’ experiences and perspectives influence their understanding of texts.

These are just a few of the many critical movements and influential critics that shaped literary criticism in the 20th century. The century witnessed a rich diversity of approaches and theoretical perspectives, reflecting the dynamic and evolving nature of the field.

New Criticism

New Criticism was a prominent and influential school of literary criticism that emerged in the early to mid-20th century. It focused on a rigorous and formal analysis of literary texts, emphasizing close reading and a careful examination of the text’s structure, language, and literary devices. 

Close Reading: New Critics believed in the importance of close reading, which involves a detailed examination of the text to uncover its multiple layers of meaning. They argued that a literary work should be treated as a self-contained and autonomous object of analysis.

Textual Integrity: New Critics emphasized the integrity of the text, suggesting that the meaning of a work is contained within the text itself and can be discovered through a careful analysis of its elements. They often rejected the idea that the author’s intentions or biographical information should inform the interpretation.

Formal Elements: New Critics paid close attention to the formal elements of literature, such as structure, imagery, symbolism, rhyme, meter, and figurative language. They believed that these elements contributed to the overall meaning and aesthetic experience of the work.

Paradox and Ambiguity: New Critics appreciated paradoxes and ambiguities within literary texts. They argued that these elements added depth and complexity to the work, inviting readers to engage with multiple interpretations.

Intentional Fallacy: New Critics rejected the “intentional fallacy,” the idea that the author’s intentions should be used to interpret a text. They argued that the author’s intentions are often elusive and that the meaning of a work should be derived from the text itself.

Affective Fallacy: Similarly, New Critics rejected the “affective fallacy,” which suggests that the emotional responses of readers should determine the meaning of a text. They believed that a work’s meaning should not be based solely on individual readers’ emotional reactions.

Objective Criticism: New Critics aspired to approach literature with objectivity and detachment, seeking to analyze texts through a dispassionate and systematic examination of their formal qualities.

Influence on Pedagogy: New Criticism had a significant impact on the teaching of literature in universities. It promoted the idea that the study of literature should be focused on the text itself, and this approach influenced the development of English and literature curricula.

Prominent New Critics, such as Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren, John Crowe Ransom, and Allen Tate, played a key role in shaping this critical movement. Their influential works, including “Understanding Poetry” by Brooks and Warren, contributed to the dissemination of New Critical principles.

While New Criticism was highly influential in the mid-20th century, it also faced criticism and evolved over time. Critics from various theoretical perspectives challenged its formalist and text-centered approach, leading to the development of alternative schools of literary criticism in the latter half of the century. Nonetheless, New Criticism remains a significant chapter in the history of literary criticism, and its principles continue to inform discussions of literary analysis and interpretation.

The “Intentional Fallacy” and the “Affective Fallacy” are two important concepts in New Criticism, a literary critical approach that emerged in the early to mid-20th century. These fallacies represent fundamental principles of New Criticism, emphasizing the autonomy of the literary text and the need to focus on the text itself rather than external factors like authorial intent or individual reader responses. 

Intentional Fallacy:
The Intentional Fallacy refers to the idea that interpreting a literary work based on the author’s intentions is inherently problematic and unreliable. New Critics argued that authorial intent is often elusive and can be inferred only to a limited extent. Therefore, they rejected the practice of trying to determine the author’s intentions in order to understand or interpret a text.
Key Points:

New Critics believed that the meaning of a literary work should be derived solely from the text itself, independent of what the author may have intended.

They argued that the author’s intentions might not be accurately known, and even if they were, they should not dictate the interpretation of the work.

The focus was on analyzing the text’s form, structure, language, and literary devices to uncover its inherent meaning and complexities.

Affective Fallacy:
The Affective Fallacy concerns the idea that the meaning of a literary work should not be determined by individual readers’ emotional or subjective responses to it. New Critics rejected the notion that a work’s meaning could be reduced to the personal feelings or reactions it evokes in readers.
Key Points:

New Critics argued that readers’ emotional responses, while valid and valuable, should not be conflated with the objective interpretation of a text’s meaning.

They believed that readers might have diverse and even contradictory emotional reactions to the same work, and these reactions should not be used as the basis for assessing the work’s inherent meaning.

The focus was on analyzing the text itself and deriving meaning from its formal and structural elements.

Both the Intentional Fallacy and the Affective Fallacy reflect New Critics’ commitment to a formalist and text-centered approach to literary analysis. They believed that the meaning of a literary work could be best understood by examining its intrinsic qualities and the way it functioned as a self-contained artistic creation. These fallacies challenged traditional approaches that relied on authorial biography or reader response to determine a text’s meaning, and they continue to be subjects of discussion and debate in the field of literary criticism.

The New Criticism movement in literary criticism included several influential figures who played key roles in shaping its principles and promoting its ideas. Here are some notable New Critics:

Cleanth Brooks: Cleanth Brooks was one of the most prominent New Critics and a co-author (with Robert Penn Warren) of the influential textbook “Understanding Poetry.” He was known for his close reading of poetry and his emphasis on the importance of ambiguity and paradox in literary analysis.
Robert Penn Warren: Robert Penn Warren, in addition to his collaboration with Cleanth Brooks, was a respected poet and novelist. His contributions to New Criticism included his essays and his role in promoting the formal analysis of poetry.
John Crowe Ransom: John Crowe Ransom was a poet, essayist, and critic who played a central role in the development of New Criticism. His work often focused on modernist and contemporary poetry.
Allen Tate: Allen Tate was a poet, essayist, and novelist who was associated with the Fugitive/Agrarian literary movement and later became a proponent of New Criticism. He wrote essays on a wide range of literary topics and contributed to the development of New Critical ideas.
I.A. Richards: While not an American New Critic, I.A. Richards, a British literary critic and rhetorician, had a significant influence on the New Critical movement. His work on close reading and his ideas about the interaction between the reader and the text contributed to the New Critical approach.
R.W. Stallman: R.W. Stallman was known for his contributions to New Criticism, particularly his essays on American literature and his role in advancing the principles of the movement.
Yvor Winters: Yvor Winters was a poet and critic who incorporated New Critical ideas into his literary analysis. He emphasized the importance of formal elements in poetry and advocated for a disciplined and rigorous approach to criticism.

These New Critics, among others, played a crucial role in the development and dissemination of New Critical principles during the mid-20th century. Their work helped to establish close reading, formal analysis, and the autonomy of the text as fundamental concepts in the field of literary criticism.

Russian Formalism:

Russian Formalism was a significant school of literary criticism that originated in Russia during the early 20th century. It brought a fresh and innovative approach to the analysis of literature, focusing on the formal and structural aspects of literary texts. Key figures associated with Russian Formalism include Viktor Shklovsky, Roman Jakobson, and Boris Eichenbaum. 

Here’s a detailed overview of Russian Formalism and its key concepts:

Historical Context: Russian Formalism emerged during the early 20th century, a period marked by political and social upheaval in Russia. It was a reaction against traditional literary criticism, which often relied on historical, biographical, or ideological interpretations of texts.

Formalism’s Core Principles:

Emphasis on Form: Russian Formalists argued that the form of a literary work was of primary importance. They believed that the form, including language, structure, and literary devices, was not merely a vehicle for conveying meaning but was integral to the meaning itself.

Defamiliarization (Ostranenie): One of the central concepts of Russian Formalism, defamiliarization, refers to the process of making the familiar seem unfamiliar. Formalists believed that literature achieved its unique aesthetic quality by presenting everyday experiences in a way that forced readers to perceive them differently. This encouraged readers to engage more actively with the text.

Literariness: Russian Formalists introduced the idea of “literariness” (literariness or literariness). They argued that literature had specific qualities that set it apart from ordinary language. These qualities included deviation from everyday language, self-consciousness of language, and heightened use of literary devices.

Key Figures:

Viktor Shklovsky: Shklovsky was a central figure in Russian Formalism. He is best known for developing the concept of defamiliarization and the idea that literature’s purpose is to make the familiar unfamiliar. He also explored the relationship between language and perception.

Roman Jakobson: Roman Jakobson was a linguist and literary theorist who made significant contributions to Russian Formalism. He emphasized the importance of the “poetic function” of language and the role of sound patterns in poetry. He later became known for his work in structural linguistics and communication theory.

Boris Eichenbaum: Eichenbaum was another influential Formalist critic. He focused on the analysis of narrative and narrative devices. He discussed the concept of “motivation” in literature, examining how characters’ actions and motivations are conveyed in a text.

Legacy: Russian Formalism had a profound impact on literary theory and criticism worldwide. Its focus on form, language, and the autonomy of literature influenced subsequent schools of thought, including Structuralism, Post-Structuralism, and even aspects of New Criticism in the United States.

Suppression: It’s important to note that Russian Formalism faced suppression and criticism in its home country, especially during the Stalinist era. The Soviet authorities viewed it as overly formal and detached from the socialist ideology they promoted. Despite this, the ideas of Russian Formalism continued to exert influence on literary theory beyond Russia’s borders.

Russian Formalism remains a significant chapter in the history of literary criticism, and its concepts and approaches continue to be studied and discussed in the field of literary theory and analysis.

Psychoanalytic Criticism:

Psychoanalytic criticism is a literary approach that applies concepts and theories derived from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic psychology to the analysis of literature. This critical perspective gained prominence in the 20th century and continues to be influential in the field of literary studies. Here’s a detailed overview of psychoanalytic criticism:

Historical Context:

Psychoanalytic criticism emerged in the early 20th century, coinciding with the development and popularization of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories. Freud’s ideas about the unconscious mind, sexuality, repression, and the Oedipus complex had a profound impact on psychology and found their way into literary interpretation.

Key Concepts:

The Unconscious: Central to psychoanalytic criticism is the concept of the unconscious mind. Freud proposed that beneath our conscious awareness, there exists a realm of repressed thoughts, desires, and memories that influence our behavior and emotions. In literature, this can manifest in characters’ hidden motivations and conflicts.

Repression: Repression involves the psychological process of pushing distressing or unacceptable thoughts and feelings into the unconscious. Psychoanalytic critics often examine how repression is depicted in literature and how it shapes characters’ behavior and choices.

The Oedipus Complex: Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex suggests that during childhood, individuals experience unconscious desires for their opposite-sex parent and rivalry with their same-sex parent. This complex can be analyzed in literary works to explore characters’ complex relationships with authority figures, parents, and sexual desire.

Symbolism and Dream Analysis: Psychoanalytic critics may analyze symbols and dreams within literary texts, interpreting them as manifestations of unconscious desires and conflicts. Symbols and dreams are seen as ways for authors to express deeper psychological themes.

Prominent Psychoanalytic Critics:

Jacques Lacan: Jacques Lacan, a French psychoanalyst and literary theorist, extended and adapted Freud’s ideas in his own psychoanalytic theory. His work on the “mirror stage” and the “linguistic turn” influenced how psychoanalytic criticism approached language and identity in literature.

Norman Holland: Norman Holland, an American psychoanalytic critic, emphasized the reader’s role in the psychoanalytic interpretation of literature. He explored how readers’ personal experiences and unconscious desires interact with the text they are reading.

Applications in Literary Analysis:

Psychoanalytic critics often analyze characters’ motivations, behaviors, and relationships, focusing on the unconscious forces that drive their actions.

They may explore the symbolism and imagery within a text to uncover hidden psychological themes and conflicts.

Gender and sexuality are often significant areas of analysis, as psychoanalytic criticism can shed light on issues related to sexual identity and desire in literature.

Psychoanalytic critics may examine how authors use narrative techniques such as stream of consciousness or unreliable narration to represent the inner workings of characters’ minds.

Critiques and Limitations:

Psychoanalytic criticism has faced criticism for its reliance on subjective interpretations and its potential to pathologize characters and authors.

Critics have argued that psychoanalytic interpretations can be reductionist, reducing complex literary works to psychological symbols and conflicts.

Despite these criticisms, psychoanalytic criticism remains a valuable approach for understanding the psychological dimensions of literature. It has contributed to the exploration of characters’ inner lives, motivations, and the complex interplay of conscious and unconscious elements in literary texts.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theories

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a field that revolutionized the understanding of human psychology and had a profound influence on various disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, literature, and cultural studies. Here are some key elements of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories:

The Unconscious Mind:

Freud’s most fundamental concept is the idea of the unconscious mind. He proposed that a significant part of our mental life operates below the level of conscious awareness. This unconscious realm contains repressed thoughts, memories, desires, and conflicts that can influence our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Psychosexual Development:

Freud developed a theory of psychosexual development, which posits that individuals pass through distinct stages of development during childhood, each characterized by a focus on a specific erogenous zone (a part of the body that is a source of pleasure). These stages include the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages.

The Oedipus complex is a central concept in this theory, describing a child’s feelings of desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent. It plays a significant role in the development of a child’s gender identity and emotional development.

Defense Mechanisms:

Freud proposed that individuals use defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety and to protect themselves from experiencing distressing thoughts or emotions. These mechanisms include repression (pushing thoughts into the unconscious), denial, projection, displacement, and rationalization.

The Structure of the Mind:

Freud conceptualized the mind as consisting of three main components:

The id: The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind, driven by the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of desires and is often irrational.

The ego: The ego acts as a mediator between the id and the external world. It operates according to the reality principle, seeking to balance the id’s desires with the constraints of reality.

The superego: The superego represents the internalized moral and societal values. It acts as a conscience, enforcing moral standards and ideals.

Dream Analysis:

Freud believed that dreams were a window into the unconscious mind. He developed a method of dream analysis to explore the symbolism and latent content of dreams, arguing that they often reveal hidden desires and conflicts.

Free Association and the Couch:

In psychoanalysis, Freud used techniques such as free association, where patients express whatever comes to mind without censorship, and the “talking cure” to explore the unconscious and resolve psychological issues.

Sexuality and Libido:

Freud’s theories placed significant emphasis on sexuality and the concept of libido, which is the psychic energy associated with sexual desire. He argued that sexual energy played a crucial role in shaping human behavior and motivation.

Critiques and Influence:

Freud’s theories have faced criticism and controversy, including accusations of being overly deterministic and unscientific. However, they have also had a profound and lasting impact on fields such as psychology, psychiatry, literature, art, and cultural studies. Freudian concepts like the unconscious, defense mechanisms, and the Oedipus complex continue to be influential in contemporary thought and analysis.

Sigmund Freud’s work laid the foundation for the field of psychoanalysis and had a transformative effect on how we understand the human mind and behavior. His ideas continue to be a subject of study, debate, and application in various disciplines to this day.

Psychoanalytic criticism, as inspired by Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, has evolved and been expanded upon by various theorists and critics. Jacques Lacan and Norman Holland are two notable figures who made significant contributions to this field of literary analysis. Here’s an overview of their perspectives and contributions:

Jacques Lacan (1901-1981):

Key Concepts: Jacques Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychoanalytic theorist who introduced complex and influential ideas that bridged psychoanalysis and literary theory. Some key concepts associated with Lacan’s work include:

The Mirror Stage: Lacan proposed the “mirror stage” as a crucial developmental phase in a child’s life. During this stage, a child recognizes their own image in a mirror, which leads to a sense of self-identity and ego formation. Lacan used this concept to explore issues of identity, self-illusion, and the split between the “I” and the “me.”

The Symbolic Order: Lacan introduced the idea of the “symbolic order,” which involves language and cultural symbols. He argued that language shapes our sense of self and reality, and that it is through language that we communicate our desires and navigate the social world.

The Real, Imaginary, and Symbolic: Lacan divided human experience into the Real, Imaginary, and Symbolic realms. The Real represents the unmediated, chaotic, and often traumatic aspects of existence. The Imaginary relates to self-image and identification. The Symbolic pertains to language, culture, and social norms.

Application to Literature: Lacan’s ideas have been applied to literary analysis by examining how language and narrative shape characters’ identities and desires. His concepts have been used to explore themes of self-alienation, desire, and the role of language in literature.

Norman Holland (1927-2017):

Key Concepts: Norman Holland was an American psychoanalytic critic who focused on the relationship between readers and texts. He believed that readers’ psychological experiences and unconscious desires played a significant role in their interpretation of literature. Some key concepts associated with Holland’s work include:

Reader-Response Theory: Holland was a pioneer of reader-response theory, which emphasizes the role of the reader in the interpretation of a text. He argued that readers bring their own psychological and emotional experiences to the act of reading, influencing their understanding of the text.

Transference: Holland introduced the concept of “transference” in literary reading. This refers to the reader’s projection of unconscious desires and emotions onto characters and situations in the text. Readers may unconsciously identify with characters or react emotionally to specific events.

Personal Interpretive Communities: Holland proposed the idea of “interpretive communities,” suggesting that readers belong to specific groups or communities that shape their interpretations of literature. These communities can be influenced by shared cultural backgrounds, experiences, and beliefs.

Application to Literature: Holland’s approach focuses on the psychological and emotional responses of readers to literary texts. He argued that readers’ individual experiences and unconscious processes influence their interpretation of a text, making each reading a unique and personal experience.

Both Jacques Lacan and Norman Holland contributed to the expansion of psychoanalytic criticism by incorporating psychological and psychoanalytic concepts into the analysis of literature. While Lacan explored the role of language and identity, Holland emphasized the importance of the reader’s subjective experience in literary interpretation. Their work continues to be influential in the study of literature and literary theory.

Marxist Criticism 

Marxist criticism is a literary theory and method that applies the principles and ideas of Marxism, which is a socio-political and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, to the analysis of literature. Marxist critics, such as Georg Lukács and Raymond Williams, explore how economic and social structures are reflected in literary works and how literature can shed light on class struggles, ideology, and the role of literature in society. Here’s a more detailed look at Marxist criticism:

Historical Context:

Marxist criticism emerged as a literary and cultural theory during the 20th century, influenced by the socio-political ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism is primarily concerned with the dynamics of class struggle, capitalism, and the transformation of society.

Key Concepts in Marxist Criticism:

Historical Materialism: Marxist critics use the concept of historical materialism to understand how literature reflects the historical and economic conditions of a given society. They explore how literature can be seen as a product of its historical context and how it reflects the dominant economic and social forces of its time.

Base and Superstructure: Marxism posits that society consists of two main components: the economic base (the means of production, class relations, and economic systems) and the superstructure (the cultural, ideological, and political aspects of society). Marxist critics analyze how the base influences the superstructure, including literature.

Class Struggle: Central to Marxist criticism is the examination of class struggles and conflicts. Critics explore how literature portrays and represents the struggles between different social classes, particularly the working class and the bourgeoisie (capitalist class).

Ideology: Marxist critics investigate how literature reflects and perpetuates ideology, which is the set of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve the interests of the ruling class. They analyze how literature can challenge or reinforce prevailing ideologies.

Georg Lukács (1885-1971):

Georg Lukács, a Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic, is known for his contributions to Marxist literary theory. He emphasized the importance of the “social totality” and the historical context in literary analysis. His work on the novel, particularly in “The Theory of the Novel,” is influential in Marxist criticism.

Raymond Williams (1921-1988):

Raymond Williams, a British cultural critic and theorist, expanded Marxist criticism to include considerations of culture and communication. He explored how literature and culture are intertwined with class dynamics and societal change. His work on cultural materialism is significant in this regard.

Application to Literature:

Marxist critics analyze literary texts by considering how they represent class relations, social inequality, and the effects of capitalism. They examine characters, plot developments, and symbolism through a Marxist lens to uncover underlying social and economic messages.

Literary works from different time periods and genres are subject to Marxist analysis, as critics seek to reveal how literature reflects the economic and social structures of its time.

Critiques and Debates:

Marxist criticism has faced criticism, including accusations of oversimplification and determinism. Critics argue that reducing literature solely to its economic and social context may overlook other aspects of its complexity and artistic value.

Debates within Marxist criticism continue to explore the extent to which literature directly reflects or influences social change and the role of the individual author in this process.

Marxist criticism remains an influential approach in literary theory, offering valuable insights into the relationship between literature, society, and class struggle. It provides a framework for analyzing how literature reflects and interacts with the economic and social forces that shape the world.